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EVERYBODY'S BUSINESS: 

EVERYBODY'S BUSINESS SHOULD BE 
IN EVERYBODY'S HANDS, 

EVERYBODY'S MOUTH, EVERYWHERE. 



BY MARCUS DAVIS. 

if 



LONDON : 

SIMPKIN, MARSHALL, AND CO. 

1865. 

PRICE EIGHTEENPENCE. 
[All rights reserved.] 






CHARLES A. MACINTOSH, 

PRINTER, 

GREAT NEW-STREET, LONDON. 



Western Ont. Univ. Library 

7 1940 



o 



TO THE RIGHT HONOURABLE 

WILLIAM EWART GLADSTONE, M.P., 

CHANCELLOR OF THE EXCHEQUER', 

IS, 



RESPECTFULLY DEDICATED EY 



THE AUTHOR. 



OUR FRONTISPIECE. 



The character on the left of our embellishment 
represents an Old English Gentleman. Robert 
Ainsworth informs us that the letter P is of no 
great antiquity, nor, in fact, use. The name of 
this letter is the same in English, Latin, Greek, 
and Hebrew, HD , pe, signifying, in that tongue, 
a mouth, which the figure somewhat represents. 
The ancient Latins were sometimes at a stand 
whether to write B or P ; as, for instance, in 
Fabius ; whether pbtineo, or optineo ; since more 
of this, than that was heard in pronunciation. 
This is also proportionably demonstrated in its 
very figure, P being half a B. 

Concerning the origin, power, and use of the 
letter Q, the ancient Latin writers have delivered 
various opinions. Some of them took it to be 
superfluous, and therefore probably were uncon- 
cerned about it, how or whence it came into their 
alphabet. Of this number were Nigidius Figulus, 
and Licinius Calvus, who refused to use it at all. 
Some used c for it, indifferently, as pequnia, 
loquunter, obliquum, or pecunia, locunter, obli- 



Vlll OUR FRONTISPIECE. 

cum ; others again regarded it as no letter ; but 
only a combined note of cu, as quanda, some have 
written cuanda. But with regard to our intro- 
duction and use in the English language, they 
appear indispensable acquisitions, and in con- 
nection with the proverb " Mind your P's and 
0,'s." Our learned friend, Dr. Wainwright, in- 
forms us, that he communicated to the Editor of 
" Notes and Queries," the origin of the expression, 
and it originated with a coterie, among whom was 
Sterne, and one of the party was continually 
enunciating some doctrine which Sterne described 
as peculiar, and every time these sentiments were 
uttered, Sterne called out, "That's another 
peculiarity," till they became so frequent, they 
were termed " P. GTs," and thence those who told 
any remarkable story were reminded to " Mind 
their P's and 0,'s." But we are bound to say we 
have the story from another source which is some- 
what contradictory, and we leave it to the judg- 
ment of the learned reader to decide between the 
two versions. Churches were not always revered 
as they are now, and this may afford argument 
that w T e have become better with the strides of 
civilization, and here we may allude to "an inci- 
dent connected with Old St. Paul," which may 
not be uninteresting. " In the year 1600, a 
middle-size bay English gelding, the property of 
Bankes, a servant to the Earl of Essex, and a 
vintner in Cheapside, ascended to the top of St. 
Paul's, to the delight — it is said by Dekker — of a 
number of asses who brayed below. 

"Bankes had taught hishorse, which went by the 
name of Marrocco, to count, and perform a variety 



OUR FRONTISPIECE, IX 

of feats. When the novelty had somewhat 
lessened in London, Bankes took his wonderful 
beast first to Paris and afterwards to Rome. He 
had better have stayed at home, for both he and 
his horse — which was shod with silver — were 
burnt for witchcraft." 

St. Paul's appears to have been the Exchange 
of London. " It was here Falstaff bought Bar- 
dolph, 'I bought him in St. Paul's/" And 
Oliver Cromwell made it horse-quarters for his 
soldiers, as he desecrated all the churches by con- 
verting them into barracks and garrisons ; to 
which places, no doubt, the poverty of his ex- 
chequer contributed to the attraction, as in those 
days the Church was enormously wealthy, and its 
sculptured saints' embellishments were mounts of 
silver and gold. A visit to our cathedrals in 
Lincolnshire and Yorkshire, and those places 
located by the Puritan soldier, bears testimony 
to the devastations of the iconoclast of those 
days ; indeed the soldier was often left to his own 
resources, by foraging, to obtain provisions, to 
the great dread of the farmer ; and whenever he 
was met by his friends, who had intelligence of a 
foraging party being on the road, he was told to 
take care, or look after, his pigs and ewes, which 
thence became corrupted into " Mind your P's 
and Q V : and it is a strange coincidence that 
the' word pecu in Latin signifies a flock of sheep. 

" He Knows Everybody's Business." 
We have the authority of Home Tooke, and a 
host of respectable writers, to support us in the 
proposition that the verb "to know" is derived 

b 



X OUR FRONTISPIECE. 

from the noun nose, but this will not be deemed 
remarkable to those who are acquainted with the 
works of those writers, who prove that a rump- 
steak is derived from the word skewer. 

Every nose has tw T o cavities, and knowledge is 
supposed to have its seat in the brain, then we 
may incontestably show that knowledge is con- 
veyed through the nasal cellular passages to the 
head and brain. To maintain our argument 
we will produce a blind man, and place near 
the tubes of his nose a rose or a twig of 
lavender. We will stake our life the blind man 
can immediately inform us that he is presented 
with a rose or lavender, as the case may be. He 
knows it through his nose. Therefore anyone 
that is supposed more than usually cute is said, in 
the vernacular, to be " up to snuff," and we have 
the authority of some philosophers for saying 
that people with large noses often become great 
men. That is, a man with a large nose, and an 
active brain proportioned to his nose, knows 
many things more than ordinary mortals. This 
appears to be a subject deserving some attention 
from the medical practitioner, as, no doubt, good 
and wholesome smells are conducive to health, 
strength, and long life ; muscular as well as 
intellectual strength, preservative also to our 
cattle and beasts — the brute, as well as the 
human animal. 



CONTENTS. 



CHAPTER I. 

Page 

Everybody's Business, What it is 1 

Hard words break no bones 2 

Proper selection of Words 2,3 

Advantages of knowing " Everybody's Business " 3 — 8 

Limited Liability Companies ... 4 

Lindley Murray's Trial ... ... 5 

The Jury find him Guilty ... 6 

His Sentence ... ... ... 6 

Where Love comes from ... ... 6 

A Large Family ... ... ... 7 

Noughts and Crosses, and Puzzle-figure ... ... '7 

A Polling Stone and Snow Ball 7 

Good Wine— Writing on the Wall 8 

Poyalty and Authors 9 

Author's Objects 9—11 



CHAPTER II. 

Proper Language, What it is 

Its Advantages 

„ to the Merchant 

„ Lawyer 

A Dirty Little Blackguard ... 



12 
13 
13 

14 
15 



CONTENTS. 



The Private Soldier . . . 
The Queen 

The Working Thousand 
Importance of Learning 



Page 
15 

15 

18 
20 



CHAPTER III. 

Language regulated by Fashion 

Where to Select 

Courts of Law 



22 
23 
24 



CHAPTER IV. 



A Word, What is it ? 
Walker 



25 
25 



CHAPTER V. 




Words, Their arbitrary use ... 


30 


„ Their classification 


30 


The Noun 


31 


The Test 


34 


Proper Common Uses of the distinction . . . 


36 


Murray, Rice Cobbett 


40 


Capital 


41 


Number of Nouns 


41 


Gender, Nouns have no Gender 


42 


Transformation ... ... 


43 


Some of the Noun's representatives 


... 43,44 


What person means ... 


46 


Different sorts of persons 


46 



CONTENTS. Xlll 

Page 

" It," said to be a great troubler 47 

More about " It" ;. 48 

Murray's Table of Personal Pronouns ... ... 49 

His precepts verified ... ... ... ... ... 50 

Case 51 

All about Pronouns ... ... ... ... 53 — 64 

Hodge's Epistle ... ... ... 65 

The Cattle Plague 65 

The Mizzles (Measles) 65 

Hodge's literary capacity ... ... ... ... 65 

Who's there? 67 

Possessive Case ... ... ... ... ... 67 

Mind your P's and Q's 68 

Spell it with a We, Sam'ell 68 

Vords, wery wexing ... ... ... 68 

The Article 69,70 

The Adjective 71 

No Superlatives ... ... ... ... ... 72, 73 

Murray, his further examination ... ... ... 73 

The Conjunction 84 

Oh Yes! Oh Yes! Oh Yes! 87 

Abuse of the Interjection ... ... ... ... 87 

The dog speaks, it says, " If you come near I will 

bite you" 88 

Ah! Ah! Ah! 88 

The Ladies — sensation themes ... ... ... 88 

Prepositions, a go-between 89 

1,000/. (money) 90 

1,000 lbs. (potatoes) 90 

1,000 yards (cloth) 90 

Prepositions ... ... ... ... 91 

Adverbs ... ... ... ... ... ... 93 



XIV 



CONTENTS. 



Age of the Verb 

All Verbs are active 

Tense . . . 

Mode ... 

Participles 

Bad Jokes 

Marks and Eemarks 



... 100 
... 102 
... 106 
.., 107 

• . 108 

117, 118 

120 



EVERYBODY'S BUSINESS. 



Everybody's Business should be in Every- 
body's hands, and in Everybody's mouth 
everywhere. 

Everybody's Business! 

What is Everybody's Business ? 

It is Everybody's Business to speak ; and if 
it is Everybody's Business to speak, it is worth 
Everybody's while to speak correctly ; and this 
is Everybody's Business. 



" Shoemaker stick to your last." This is the 
sententious proposition of the opponents to pro- 
gress. Quite so ! We €C throw the glove " — if 
need be — to our antagonists. We offer them 
battle, and turn their own weapons on them. 

Speaking, we fearlessly maintain, is the Last. 
It is Everybody's Business ! ! therefore ,by 



2 everybody's business. 

"sticking" to the Last; by learning how to 
speak and write correctly — to make, as it were, a 
nice fitting boot, we shall progress pleasantly and 
satisfactorily ; and not like the clodhopper on his 
clumps, whose habitation like the snail's, is almost 
confined to his back. Progress and improvement 
are the order of the day ; they are Everybody's 
Business. 

" Hard words break no bones." Nonsense ! 
If " a mild answer turns away wrath," it will most 
likely save our bones. " He persecuted me unto 
the death," was not chastisement by blows, but 
the instrument of torture was words ; and words 
have as much effect on the constitution as 
muscular action with the stick. We might call 
one person a rogue, a thief, and a liar without 
affecting his nerves in the slightest degree, whilst 
those epithets, applied to more refined and de- 
licately constituted persons would have a serious 
and very alarming effect, the same as some persons 
would scarcely be affected by a sound thrashing, 
whilst to others, whose cuticle may be of a more 
delicate nature, it would be punishment to the 
death. 

A proper use of words, will save our skin as 
well as serve us more substantially. It is 
Everybody's Business. 

" But it is not my Business," says the sot. 



EVERYBODY S BUSINESS. 6 

" So long as I get my drop of beer and a bit of 
bacca, I can be ' happy as a sand-boy.' " 

Very true, but you may not be always able to 
obtain your " beer and bacca." You may lose 
your work, and when a good situation offers 
itself; one that you may have the particular 
capacity for ; you cannot find words to express 
your capabilities and you lose the job. 

To speak properly is your Business. It makes 
a good servant, and finds a better master. It is 
Everybody's Business. 

" Mind your own Business" so say we to the 
lawyer whose Business is philology. 

He is no lawyer that is not a grammatical 
scholar. There is no end of trouble and vexa- 
tion of spirit that ensue, from the host of men, 
to whom are entrusted the stewardship of our 
estates, from their not being acquainted with the 
proper use and construction of words, or neglecting 
this most essential branch of their profession. 

Acts of Parliament abound in tautology, and 
rare redundant in verbosity, as if they were com- 
posed for the express purpose of analyzation by 
learned exponents. 

These commentators are the lawyers, and of 
paramount importance, and the chief element of 
success, of prosperity in their career, is, an intimate 
knowledge of Everybody's Business, 
b 2 



4 EVERYBODY S BUSINESS. 

They are our advocates and defenders. Vast 
estates — thousands of pounds in value — are sur- 
rendered to their hands to protect, to vindicate and 
uphold our rights against all comers — and very 
often these thousands of pounds are lamentably 
wasted and swept away, because of the woful 
ignorance of legal gentlemen, of Everybody's 
Business. 

Among the professors of law, we have, recently, 
had several pitiful cases of ignorance, or neg- 
lect of Everybody's Business. Originators of 
" Limited Liability Companies " have '*■ come to 
grief " on this account, and a considerable amount 
of money has been lost — squandered away broad- 
cast — in consequence. 

We have known instances of Companies pro- 
posing to erect works, and stating in their pro- 
spectuses " Interest at the rate of seven per cent, 
per annum w r iLL be paid until the completion of 
the buildings, &c," but their Articles of Associa- 
tion stated " Interest at the rate of seven per 
cent. may be paid during the construction of the 
works." As if there was no distinction between 
the words will and may. Such neglect of 
Everybody's Business, could not avert the ruin 
of any Company, and if the Lawyers who had the 
supervision of such schemes were acquainted with 
or paid proper attention to Everybody's Business, 



EVERYBODY S BUSINESS. 5 

those calamitous events would have been averted. 
They are the very men to know Everybody's 
Business. 

But we know Everybody's Business! say the 
Schoolmasters, the Learned Men of Letters, the 
Professors, the Doctors, and the Logicians ! 

Do you indeed ! 

Well let us see ! ! 

We will constitute ourselves your jury; and 
put the credibility of your witnesses to the 
test. 

Now Mr. Lindley Murray stand forward ! we 
will examine you, and in doing so, we include a 
long role of others, some of greater and some of 
less eminence than yourself; from a period 
antecedent as well as subsequent to your time. 

You inform us, in your English Grammar, 
Chapter xi., on derivation, that " Substantives 
are derived from verbs : as, from ' to love' comes 
' lover ' ; from c to visit ' visiter." 

Are they really ! ! 

You actually inform us ; that from the verb 
" to love " comes the noun lover : that is from a 
verb, a word in which consists the principle of 
action, the noun is formed, in which is concen- 
trated the essence of existence. 

Weak ! Weak arguments ! ! 

Is this your real and true opinion, Mr. Murray, 



b EVERYBODY S BUSINESS. 

and all you his host of followers ; or are you 
endeavouring to cajole the jury, when you 
seriously state that " To love ; " that is, the 
action of loving was in existence before the 
essential thing love was known ! or the loving 
came first and the lover afterwards. 

It might with just as much propriety be said 
that speech came first and man afterwards ! 

We find you all guilty, without extenuating 
circumstances : and caution you not to repeat the 
offence against Everybody's Business. 

You, Oxford and Cambridge-men, quickly ! 
doff your cap and gown, and make yourselves 
properly acquainted with Everybody's Business. 

Be considerate towards relations. It is Every- 
body's Business. 

The Great Home Tooke appears almost to 
have ignored his relations, he alludes to them so 
slightingly : for he says among such a large family 
of offshoots, it may be difficult to trace our 
original mother, the noun, and we are plunged 
into an abyss of darkness ; and it is not so sur- 
prising that people forget their relations after a 
considerable period of absence. The famed tale of 
" Rip Van Winkle/' is evidence of the difficulty 
people have, under such circumstances, of re- 
cognising their relations. 

There are about forty thousand words in the 



EVERYBODY S BUSINESS. i 

English language all related to one another, and 
sprung from one original parent whose name was 
"Beginning" — for her history we refer to page 
33. This family is divided into nine branches in 
the same way as we divide the human family into 
Mothers, Fathers, Brothers, Sisters, Uncles, 
Aunts, Nephews, Nieces, and Cousins. 

To know our relations and treat them properly 
is Everybody's Business. 

"When we were small boys at school, we had 
our little games of " Noughts and crosses -' and 
"puzzle figure ;" and vexing puzzles we had over 
them sometimes. 'Till we were initiated in the 
mystery, they were like a maze, invented to 
mislead, but the simplest things imaginable 
when we were provided with the key : So ; 
many books, that profess to instruct us in the 
right use of words, lead us into a bewildering 
maze of perplexity. To furnish the clew to 
guide us through the winding labyrinth is our 
business ; to know this is Everybody's Business. 

" A rolling stone gathers no moss." This, like 
many saws, has its obverse : "We know the snow- 
ball gathers as it goes : 'Tis also said " Good 
wine needs no bush f } but " w T e must not hide our 
«andle under a bushel ; but place it on a table, 
that all may see thereby : " Everybody says, that 
" Everybody's Business " is the best book in 



8 everybody's business. 

London, and when they say London, they mean 
the World ! But how did they know this ? 
Why ; because we hung out the bush, and, by 
means of the press, placed our candle on the 
table; that, like the "Writing on the Wall; 5 
though not in the Scripture sense, "he that 
runs might read" and know all about Every- 
body's Business. 

We will now say something about ourselves. 

It is Everybody's Business to read this book, 
and when Everybody has read it, he will know 
something about Everybody's Business, but, at 
the first blush, before he has progressed far into 
its contents, he may be somewhat puzzled, by 
seeing some one, who professes to know a little 
about Everybody's Business, communicating 
his knowledge in, what grammarians call the 
plural number: that is, instead of the author 
addressing his readers in his own proper person, 
in the singular number and saying, — I will now 
say something about myself, he has communicated 
his notions as if he were — Author and Company. 
This style of address — the use of the plural 
number, is a privilege of Royalty and also of 
Authors. Shakspere's King Lear says : — 

" Meantime we shall express our darker purpose. 
Give me the map there — know that we have divided 
In three our Kingdom : and 'tis our fast intent . 



EVERYBODY S BUSINESS. V 

To shake all cares and business from our age ; 
Conferring them on younger strengths, while we 
Unburden' d crawl toward death. — Our son of Cornwall 
And you, our no less loving son of Albany, 
We have this hour a constant will to publish 
Our daughter's several dowers, that future 
Strife may be prevented now." 

It appears that the decrees of Royalty, infer 
not only what the King wills, but its sovereign 
might and power are established, because it speaks 
with the voice and consent of its courtiers and 
every loyal subject. It is a privilege to authors 
to have this right of use of the plural pronoun 
ceded to them. 

The subject herein treated of, may appear to 
the author to be placed in a clearer light than it 
has ever appeared in before. It may, perhaps be 
thought a very excellent work by many persons : 
nevertheless many other persons may entertain a 
different opinion; but, however this may be; 
every author and every inventor knows, that, if 
his productions are mediocral, to say nothing of 
their attainment to excellence, similar ideas must 
arise from existing facts in art or science, and 
although they may be unpublished — in the 
general acceptation of this term — yet these facts 
may be known to many persons besides the 
author. Perhaps the principles of grammar or 
the art of speaking correctly has not been pre- 



10 everybody's business. 

viously elucidated by publication in the way it is 
done in this book, but that is no reason, that it is 
entirely new. 

There may be hundreds or thousands of persons 
who know quite as much of the subject as we ; 
and if they had chosen could have written — no 
doubt — quite as clearly on the subject : therefore 
it would be arrogance and presumption, and very 
egotistical in any author or contriver of a scheme 
or invention to be continually stating, I have 
done this. I wrote that. This is my opinion. 
This fact occurs to me, &c. 

The clerk from his pulpit informs us that he 
has a congregation of some five or six hundred ; 
and if he, with the grace of God, be the means 
of saving one soul of his flock he is satisfied ; he 
has fulfilled his mission and done a good day's 
work. 

So, if we imagine we are relieving distress, 
by an occasional dole to the miserable objects 
we meet with in our rambles, and nine out of 
ten are made up for the purpose of exciting 
sympathy ; impostors, who simulate the depict- 
ings of famished humanity and distress next to 
death's door ; — if our mite has averted the calamity 
of starvation ; or staved off the pangs of departing 
life, in one case out of ten, we have done a 
glorious day's work. And if we succeed in 



11 

instilling into our readers' minds the value of 
Everybody's Business, if we rescue any por- 
tion of humankind from the dullard's abyss of 
ignorance, which is the staunch ally of degrada- 
tion and misery, to make them brighter, more 
cheerful and content, our labour will not be in 
vain — it will be satisfaction to the author and 
a happy wind-up to Everybody's Business. 



CHAPTER II. 

The grammar of a country is the art of an 
acquaintance with the proper words to use in the 
formation of sentences, and with the reasons of 
the words being used. It is also the art of 
assigning the proper places to words to indicate 
their relation to one another to render them com- 
prehensible, and in accordance with the rules of 
the period and country in which the language is 
spoken, and comprises ability to express oneself 
with perspicuity, so as to make our meaning, 
our requirements, our intents, and designs as 
intelligible to others as they are conceived by 
ourselves. It also enables us to have a clear 
conception of the full purport and just impres- 
sions of all communications oral or transcribed. 

Lacking this knowledge we may convey a 
totally different meaning of our ideas than we 
intended, and the most important transactions of 
our lives may be rendered abortive. 

When its principles are properly understood — 
and they are attainable by almost the meanest 
capacity — the possessor of this acquisition feels 



everybody's business. 13 

himself on a footing of equality with those on 
whom chance or fortune has bestowed her choicest 
favours in the shape of worldly stores, or even 
Governors or Princes. To speak fluently and 
scientifically is the very aristocracy of mental 
possessions — the key to excellence in any attain- 
ments we aim at accomplishing — and although to 
speak fluently may be a gift — a gift of the highest 
order — and depends on the retentive properties of 
the brain, or memory, and therefore is not attain- 
able by all persons — yet to speak scientifically or 
correctly, and also to have a just conception of all 
instructions, commands, requests and information 
imparted, or communicated to us is within the 
capacity and reach of nearly all persons. 

We don't know what we may have lost or may 
lose by neglecting this acquisition. The com- 
monest as well as the most important acts of our 
lives are identified with it. It is the source of all 
grandeur with the lawyer, and his mortification 
and defeat generally ensue from his ignorance of 
this knowledge. The merchant's contracts may 
be susceptible of a totally different interpretation 
from that he intended, and heavy losses may arise 
through his ignorance of, or inattention to gram- 
matical construction — as in Courts of Law — very 
properly — explanation of intention is, as a rule, 
inadmissible; and therefore we must receive 



14 everybody's business. 

tilings as they are presented to us, and from 
thence define the meaning. 

The lawyer reaps his harvest from this rich 
mine of crass ignorance arising from vague, crude, 
uncertain and ambiguous combination of words 
in their selection and relation to one another in 
wills, deeds, contracts, agreements, and other 
documents, and therefore, if it were as arduous 
a task to master as it is easy, plain, and simple, 
these arguments ought to suffice us to devote 
some portion of our time to its accomplishment. 
It is, in fact, a necessary of life ; as much so as 
our clothing, our boots, our stockings, our 
periodic meals, our breakfasts, our dinners or our 
beds. We have done without those luxuries, as 
we should have considered them some few hundred 
years back, when we were content to be kicked 
and cuffed as menials and taught to be thankful, 
by those who set themselves up as greater than 
we, for the boon of life, and when we became too 
numerous, to rejoice in wars and fevers to rid us 
of the incumbrance of a superabundance of 
humanity : each living soul being in the way of 
another, 

"We don't know the value of grammatical know- 
ledge if we do not possess it. We are totally 
unaware of the powerful weapons of offence and 
defence ; of the resources of advancement in life, 



everybody's business. 15 

that are inherent in the attainment of a knowledge 
of grammar. It enables us to measure our own 
capacities, and to form a just estimate of the 
abilities of others. The possessor of this acquisi- 
tion can judge of the proper value to be set tg 
the account of others as well as what is due to 
himself. 

"When we know, properly, how to esteem our- 
selves, we will indeed smile at the ignorance, 
added to the impiety — which is the pivot of 
ignorance — of those who wonder if " the occupants 
of the splendid equipages rolling slowly by are 
there by right divine of noble birth and lofty 
position." We will see in the dirty little black- 
guard, a loathsome thing of rags, puddling in 
filth ; a parcel of humanity as noble in its origin 
as the peerless (?) occupants of those splendid 
Belgravian mansions, or the inmates of the Most 
Highly Esteemed House in the World situated in 
Pimlico ; and in the private guardsman parading 
this Great House quite as much greatness and 
nobleness in his formation as in Her Majesty, 
God bless her, or in any of her progeny. 

We are all God's creatures, and, without dis- 
tinction He has made us all in His own image ! 
But, stop ! not so fast, says Mr. Parasite. If we 
are all alike ; how is it, we see that evident dis- 
tinction and deference paid to gentlemen, to men 



16 everybody's business. 

of title and position ? In nearly all cases it is 
outward show — hypocrisy — " Rustic children run 
out of cottage doors to curtsey/' and they are 
taught — as part of their servitude to the finely 
dressed people, who may be " master's friends" — 
to stoop, as the inferior animals, from infancy, in- 
stead of holding proudly erect as man on equality 
with his fellows and superior to brute organiza- 
tion. They are brought up ignorant of their 
position in creation; and hence the world of 
crime — necessitating gaols, reformatories, penal- 
ties and chastisements — punishments for criminals 
whose misdeeds are engendered by our mistakes 
in infant tutoring. 



This book is not a composition intended for 
children ; it does not include instruction in the 
alphabet, in spelling and the attributes of words ; 
although it is the intention of the author to place 
the principles of the art he attempts to elucidate 
in a clear and comprehensible light, to be within 
the capacity of the boy from the plough-tail, and 
useful to all classes of persons. 

The wealthy man, great in his accumulation of 
riches, if he be not in possession of knowledge 
sufficient to command respect, and if he speak 



everybody's business. 17 

ungrammatically, is not considered a gentleman, 
though he may fancy himself high in man's estima- 
tion, because of our infidelity. We are great 
worshippers of the golden calf — We adore our 
Queen, Her valued, Her highly-esteemed likeness 
set in gold — our precious, dear and very best 
friend — our best beloved good sovereign ; and so 
in our unrighteous faith and hypocrisy, the rich 
man is courted, feted and made much of whilst 
our feet are under his mahogany. 

Though we may know him to be as uncom- 
panionable, as unintellectual, as uncongenial as a 
donkey, yet we thrust him into the highest seats 
in honoured and coveted places, and then he 
becomes the subject of the scoffer; of ridicule, 
the gibe — the jest, and food for merriment, when 
his literary merits are the theme of a discourse. 

We may depend such a man has superior 
mental qualifications, or he would not become a 
wealthy man of substance, but, unfortunately he 
has not seen the advantages of mental acquisitions. 

He is not aw T are that it is much easier to 
acquire a clear and just conception of correct 
speaking and writing, a branch of knowledge that 
commands respect, than to become an adept at 
striking a bargain : then why should any one 
subject himself to become a butt to persons, who 
perhaps, as far as the organization of the brain is 

c 



18 everybody's business. 

concerned, are infinitely inferior, and might not 
be capable of approach if his intellectual faculties 
were properly developed ? And why should not 
the working man, the mechanic, the producer 
have his place in society ? Why is an ill-dressed 
man, in labourer's apparel, treated with contumely, 
even in courts of justice, and unprotected in the 
Legislative assembly ? Why are laws made to 
compel men, who administer to our comforts and 
requirements, to work at the wage of starvation, or 
resort to cheating and misrepresentation ? Be- 
cause they are totally unacquainted with that 
branch of knowledge which gives to man a tower 
of defence. They have not that command of 
language which imparts confidence, not only to 
assert our rights but defend them. They have 
not the capabilities to make their w r rongs known; 
They cannot maintain their own cause nor hire 
advocates to plead for them. " Thou shalt earn 
thy bread by the sweat of thy brow." This 
Divine precept must not be taken to apply solely 
to bodily exertion ; but the exercise and cultiva- 
tion of our mental capacity is part of our duty ; 
and 'tis neglect of God's Laws, and disobedience 
to His commands, if we labour not somewhat in 
this direction, to deserve our bread. 

If the poor cab-driver, who is, by law, com- 
pelled in all weather, to drive us in his carriage 



everybody's business. 19 

at sixpence the mile, were to make himself 
acquainted with the contents of this book, it 
would materially tend to his advancement — to his 
comfort — and improve his position. 

He would be in possession of a power to make 
himself heard. 

He would be able to inform our Legislators 
that they are wronging him by compelling him to 
labour on terms that will not find him with 
proper food and raiment, and however he may 
incline towards respectability and honesty it 
would be utterly impossible for him to respect 
the law, and drive a hackney carriage. 

That the law is oppressive in fixing a minimum 
allowance for his labours. That the maximum 
or most he might demand should be the subject 
of legislation, with his option of charging on a 
minor scale, which should be binding on him, 
and published and made known for protection 
of the public. We should not then hear so 
much of dishonest cabmen; they would become 
respectable, and our Police Courts relieved from 
a heavy portion of their present business ; and to 
these Police Courts — 

This is a free country, and justice is distri- 
buted even-handed. Though visit our Magisterial 
Courts, and you will soon perceive the distinction 
between broadcloth and fustian, from Constable 
c2 



20 everybody's business. 

Lockem of the " Hen division " to the dispenser 
of justice on the Bench. 

The cause of this is not from superiority 
of habiliments, but because the well-dressed 
man, generally, is in a position to command 
attention. 

We respect him because his outward signs 
and appointments are indications of mental 
cultivation. 

To dress well is dependent on worldly acqui- 
sitions ; and, we all know that parents — be they 
ever so mean, in other respects — do not spare 
their wealth in educating and cultivating the 
minds of their children : therefore, when we see a 
well-dressed man, we presume he is an educated 
man, and is entitled to the respect of all persons of 
common sense and understanding. The distinction 
is written in legible characters everywhere. It is 
not the difference between Fine Cloth and 
Fustian — but the dignity and distinguishments 
of education over ignorance. 

You men in [coarse apparel then, mark this ! 
and you will rapidly trip up the heels of the 
wealthy, the manufacturer, and the merchant; 
as they have, in the march of intellect, outridden 
Princes and Patricians. 

Learning, of all kinds, is a more valuable 
acquisition than riches. It is easy of attainment, 



everybody's business. 21 

and a possession of which we cannot be robbed 
or cheated, for w r e may give and be none the 
poorer, but rather gainers, by imparting our 
acquirements. 



CHAPTER III. 

" He is a common man — quite uneducated. He 
scarcely speaks a sentence correctly." These are 
the terms applied to men who may perhaps be 
possessed of a fund of general information : yet 
being deficient in the knowledge of the modes 
and rules of speaking grammatically, are pro- 
nounced, especially by ladies, as not presentable 
in society. 

His tailor may have equipped him in all the 
requirements of fashion. He may deport him- 
self according to the formula of etiquette and 
" 'twixt his finger and his thumb hold a pouncet 
box." He may " shine so brisk and smell so 
sweet," and withal be derided even by fair friends 
to whom he would forsooth play the courtier as 
inferior to "any waiting gentlewoman," and all 
because he has not begun with the beginning. 
He has no foundation, no corner-stone on which 
the superstructure is dependent. 

Many persons speak correctly from a habit of 
imitation, and adopting the language of the per- 
sons with whom they associate, knowing their 



23 

superiority of education, although, the copyist 
may be totally ignorant of the rules of grammar. 
Euphony also guides many persons in the selection 
of terms. To use such expressions, as " You is, 
You was, A apple, A advantageous offer," the 
ear almost informs us cannot be right. There is 
no mellifluence in the combination : It grates 
discordantly on the ear. It is unrefined, bar- 
baric, inelegant, inharmonious. 

We acquire, also, correct mode of speaking — it 
grows imperceptibly on us — from our readings : 
especially if we bestow our attention on works of 
repute, and the press may be considered a very 
good authority to guide us in the choice of 
language, but the drama and the pulpit are 
acknowledged to be the best schools, for here 
may be acquired a style, correct in pronuncia- 
tion as well as language. 

There are also other places in which words are 
made a grand and important study. These are 
our Courts of Law. For this practice men are 
educated, and make it the business of their lives 
to construe or misconstrue, accordingly as they 
may be hired. 

The disciples of the law certainly do with 
consummate artifice and subtlety divert words 
from their actual import ; and the most extrava- 
gant sums are paid to men who are notorious for 



24 everybody's business. 

their ability in this respect. " To make the 
worse appear the better cause/' they will appeal 
to all the Powers of Heaven and Earth — and even 
shed tears — every precious drop dearly paid for— 
to attest the innocence of men deep in crime. 

With the advance of learning, words will have 
their proper weight, and our Courts of Law, 
instead of being the arena for a contest between 
hired advocates, will become an honoured institu- 
tion, to seek truth and equity. Then the judicial 
pleader will discard his powdered crown ; as men 
will not be deluded, by such a miserable device, 
to deem sagacity under so foul a head-piece : 
The black guise will be thrown aside to give 
place to the white garment; the emblem of an 
upright man, of a noble mind, of truth, purity, 
honour, and justice. 



CHAPTER IV. 

Having descanted upon the manifold advantages 
derivable from an acquaintance with the art of 
speaking and writing correctly, our next step is 
initiation in the mystery. 

To commence with the root of the tree of 
knowledge, the radix or first principles, we must 
begin with the nature of a word in its simplest 
form out of which other words grow, or are 
implanted and incorporated therewith. 

Walker says "Word" is "a single part of 
speech, a short discourse, talk, discourse, dispute, 
verbal contention." Although the first attribute 
is indisputable, " word " is " a single part of 
speech," yet according to the prevalent notion, it 
would be considered a vulgar plurality of the 
term words if applied to " a dispute " or " verbal 
contention," &c. What is here intended to be 
conveyed by vulgarism, is a mode of expressing 
oneself without regard to euphony or the har- 
monious combination of words ; and the term 
word is not correctly defined in representing it to 
be a verbal contention or a dispute, but persons 



26 everybody's business. 

who do not aim at speaking correctly, but use 
any words that indicate their immediate require- 
ments, might probably say " they had words 
together," when others would express themselves 
in more apt and better chosen terms by saying 
" They had a dispute," or " were disputing," 
though we never heard any one express himself 
according to Walker- — in the singular number, 
and speaking of " a dispute or verbal contention," 
say they had a ivord together. It seems opposed 
to all notions of propriety. 

What is a w T ord ? 

Oh ! some may say, a word is an articulate 
sound composed of a number of letters. Let us 
think again, is this an idea that can be substan- 
tiated ? Can any number of letters compose a 
word that will impart the slightest idea of its 
attribute ? 

Letters certainly are signs to which we ascribe 
certain sounds, but these letters were an inven- 
tion, necessitated from our advancement in litera- 
ture long after the establishment of words, and 
letters were of no use previously to the time we 
communicated our requirements by transcribing 
them. 

Words are those terms by which we make 
known our ideas, and are used arbitrarily ; that is, 
every person does not employ the same word to 



everybody's business. 27 

denote the same object. We may call our habi- 
tation a house, but others may describe it as 
" maison," both terms denote the same idea, and 
yet the means of communication used by the 
Frenchman and the Englishman, who are but an 
hour or so separated one from the other, are 
totally different. The cause of this distinction 
or difference is, that words are not the subject 
of immutable laws which are of universal ap- 
plication and unalterable by time, but by rules 
that are ever changing with the fashion of the 
period. 

It is a law that the apple falls to the ground. 
We pronounce that law to be gravitation, or a 
power of attraction concentrated in the earth: 
and there are laws of electricity, mechanism, &c. 
These laws are not subject to variation, they are 
unchangeable ; but a rule is — with some excep- 
tions — a precept established for our guidance, but 
subject to the changes of the modes of the period. 
The exceptions are those rules which are founded 
on inherent laws, as the geometric rule of pro- 
portion, or " the rule of three " of arithmetic, 
in which laws or principles are involved that are 
invariable ; so a ruler, it always did and will be 
existent with the establishment of a law insepa- 
rable from a right line, but a two-foot rule 



28 everybody's business. 

may be subject to variation in its dimensions 
to-morrow. 

Law is the creation of a Power, which may be 
our Heavenly Father. The Laws of God are 
supreme ; they are certain, constant, and im- 
movable. 

Law is Right. 

Laws may be made by our superior rulers on 
earth ; our Legislators. The laws, made by those 
persons chosen by a nation to rule and govern, 
are right from their source ; but as man is not 
fallible, so the laws created by him may, in the 
course of events, require modifying or altering, 
and what may be right at one period may be 
wrong and unjust at another, therefore our laws, 
which are absolutely right from our power to 
enforce obedience, are, notwithstanding, alterable, 
and may be adapted to meet the requirements 
which the mutability of events may necessitate. 

The art of speaking and writing correctly then 
is founded on rules. These rules inform us, to 
say " You were," and " You are," not " You 
was," and " You is : " the latter would be incor- 
rect ; It would not be grammar. Why is this ? 
Because the combination of words " You were " 
or S€ You are " is an universal law of grammar ? 
Certainly not ; It is not immutable and maybe 



everybody's business. 29 

altered at any time. It is a rule, an adaptation of 
the period : and if the majority of literary persons 
were to say " You was " and " You is," this con- 
junction of terms would be correct and good 
grammar. 



CHAPTER V. 

Language consists of words : This we need 
scarcely be informed of; It is a self-evident 
proposition. 

Words are arranged or divided into kinds 
according to the office they fulfil in the composi- 
tion of language. These words are termed by 
grammarians " Parts of speech." They are 
classified into nine parts, and every word that is 
uttered belongs to one of these divisions, and is 
named, a noun, a pronoun, an article, an adjective, 
a verb, an adverb, a preposition, a conjunction, 
or an interjection, according to its nature and 
office in a sentence the word is intended to 
fulfil. 

The " parts of speech " that words are classed 
under, may be known by referring to any dic- 
tionary, the small letters immediately following the 
words, are the initials of denomination character- 
istic of the "parts of speech" of the words ; but 
this reference ought only to be required in ex- 
ceptional cases : as a little study and attention, to 
-what is here set forth ought to be sufficient to 



everybody's business. 31 

satisfy any enquirer, of the division under which 
any word should be properly classified. 

The first consideration we will give to the 
Noun, because it is the chiefest word in language. 
It is the foundation — the corner-stone — the com- 
mencement of the fabric to which all other ivords 
are subservient. 

The first words uttered by infants are nouns, 
" Papa," " Mamma," and " Tata," are almost the 
first words given utterance to. Some grammarians 
divide nouns into " nouns " and " nouns substan- 
tive," but the classification is useless to those who 
study grammar with a utilitarian purpose, as 
words undergo no change in their construction, 
by consequence of such division. 

Our object is to prepare the mind to receive 
and retain an impression of what a noun in the 
general acceptation of the term is ; and to recognise 
it under any circumstance. 

The term " noun substantive " would imply 
that a " substantive or noun substantive" is any- 
thing that may be handled or felt — a sound sub- 
stantial thing, a substance — but this would not 
impart an idea of the attribute of all nouns. 
" Papa " and " Mamma " are nouns. The pen 
this is written with is a noun; but "Tata" 
which implies farewell is also a noun and the 
information herein imparted is a noun. 



32 everybody's business. 

Lindley Murray informs us " A noun is the 
name of anything that exists, or of which we 
have any notion/' and this is a very good and true 
definition ; but it is too laconic. Brevity and pre- 
cision are certainly very desirable, but to lay bare 
and detect, to analize and initiate, are more 
important and infinitely more valuable than 
conciseness. 

Existence is the essential of a noun. A noun 
is the essence of every sentence. As Murray 
says : — It is anything that exists. 

There must be existence previously to attri- 
butes, which are the offices, the occupations of the 
other 'parts of speech : also if anything exists, 
we must have a notion of its existence. 

Then our first business is to put the proof of 
existence to words to discover if they are nouns. 

If a noun implies existence, how are we to 
know this ? How are we to test it ? How are 
we to find its locality in a determinate way among 
a mass of words ? 

If the name of the word be Tree, Man, Monkey, 
or Dog, we perceive an existence; because it 
is a transparent and striking fact, and requires no 
mental exertion to recognise the idea ; but four 
words mentioned in this sentence are Existence, 
Fact, Exertion, and Idea. Now these are nouns ; 
and yet we can neither feel them nor see them, 



everybody's business, 33 

although we may determine them to be un- 
mistakeable nouns, and we may, by the same 
means, be able to recognise any noun we meet 
with in our conversations, our writings, our 
readings, or our communings ; and herein lies the 
test. We must premise — the noun is the first, 
the principal word, and all other words are so 
many predicaments or situations describing the 
various circumstances in which the noun may be 
placed. 

It must have existence. Then by applying 
some word that implies existence, and if it happily 
coalesce with the word we subject to the test, we 
may be certain the subject of enquiry is a noun. 

Beginning is a noun. Everything in exist- 
ence must have had a Beginning. 

" In the beginning, God created the Heavens 
and the Earth." 

The Heavens and the Earth were a Beginning, 
or a Being ; the very essence of Existence 
from whence comes our verb " to be." Man and 
every other animal, and everything substantial 
and also ethereal — " The sun to rule by day, and 
the moon to rule by night," all succeeded the 
noun Beginning. 

" Let there he light, and there was light." 

Then if we can apply the verb " To be " so as 

D 



34 

to make sense with any word, we may be sure 
that word is a noun. As the words " be " and 
" being " come from " beginning/' so am, are, 
and is, are members of the same family, they are 
like brothers, Beginning being their mother; they 
are ramifications of the same word, — all implying 
Existence, and if we connect a word denoting 
Existence, with the word subject to enquiry, 
and the implification of Existence is exemplified 
by the coalition, that word is a noun. 

Now, let us see if our reasoning is correct, and 
if it bear the test. 

We will place the word " The " before the 
words we put to the proof, and the word "Is," or 
the word " Are," which is the plural form of 
the word " Is," after the word to be proven. By 
this process we will ascertain if we have made 
progress sufficient to distinguish this most im- 
portant part of speech from all the other words ; 
and we may, afterwards, learn if we are correct, by 
reference to a dictionary. 

The illustration by a few words from this sen- 
tence will be sufficient for our purpose ; but 
apply the principle to what words or sentences we 
choose, the result will be the same. 

The words in italics as we perceive are 
nouns : — 



EVERYBODY S BUSINESS. 



35 



The 


The 


is 


The 


apply 


is 


The 


illustration 


is 


The 


the 


is 


The 


by 


is 


The 


principle 


is 


The 


a 


is 


The 


to 


is 


The 


few 


is 


The 


what 


is 


The 


words 


are 


The 


words 


are 


The 


from 


is 


The 


or 


is 


The 


this 


is 


The 


sentences 


are 


The 


sentence 


is 


The 


we 


are 


The 


will 


is 


The 


choose, 


is 


The 


be 


is 


The 


the 


is 


The 


sufficient 


is 


The 


result 


is 


The 


for 


is 


The 


will 


is 


The 


our 


is 


The 


be 


is 


The 


purpose ; 


is 


The 


the 


is 


The 


but 


is 


The 


same. 


is 



The word will, appears to combine with the 
and is. The eause of this is, that will has one 
meaning which imparts the idea of a noun, but it 
has also another attribute by which it is another part 
of speech. It is not used in the sense of a noun, 
in the sentence referred to by way of example. 
This may be seen, by substituting a word ap- 
proaching to the same nature as will. For in- 
stance, if we use shall instead of will, and say, 
" This sentence shall be sufficient for our pur- 
pose/' it will not bear the criterion proof for a 
noun. We cannot say the shall is. The words 
d 2 



6b EVERYBODY S BUSINESS, 

shall and will are words not implying existence, 
but action. They are verbs, which will be seen 
by and by. 

Although so much has been said on this " part 
of speech," which other writers have disposed of 
in a few words; yet it is believed, not a single 
statement or sentence is unnecessary to a clear and 
defined comprehension of the subject. 

We might, certainly, have been informed, " A 
noun is the name of anything that exists, or of 
which we have any notion ; " or " A noun may, in 
general, be distinguished by its taking an article 
before it, or by making sense of itself; " but this 
would not have given the slightest clue to dis- 
tinguish it. From this definition we should be 
furnished with reasoning about as forcible as a 
woman's, " It is, because it is." 

We ought now to have a clear notion of what a 
noun is, and to be capable of recognising it 
wherever it be met with. 

We have now to consider its changes, or how 
the same noun is varied in its formation, according 
to its several uses ; and to apply it, in accordance 
with these variations, is the principle of correctness 
in speaking and writing. 

Firstly. — Nouns are divided into two kinds, 
proper and common. 

The advantage of a knowledge of this dis- 



EVERYBODY S BUSINESS. bi 

tinction is, to inform us of the proper usage of 
capitals in writing. To write correctly, the initial 
letter of a proper noun must be a capital. 

A proper noun consists in its individuality, or 
separate and distinct existence of the person or 
thing referred to. It is defined completely in 
itself by implification of its term proper, and is 
applied to represent but one particularized indi- 
vidual or thing, as God, Victoria, Napoleon, James, 
John, London, Dover, the Thames. 

Nearly all grammarians inform us that the 
proper noun requires no article ; that is the word 

a , or the word the , to accompany it as 

a prefix. Murray says, " When proper names 
have an article annexed to them, they become 
common names, as " He is the Cicero of his age." 

Rice states, " Articles are not applied to proper 
names, because they denote only individual, per- 
sons or things ; but proper names are generalized 
to avoid a circumlocutive mode of expression, and 
they then admit the use of articles, as ' He is 
quite a Demosthenes,' ' He is the Alexander of 
the age. 5 " 

Cobbett says, " Proper nouns take no articles 
before them, because the extent of their meaning 
is clearly pointed out in the word itself. In 
figurative language, we sometimes, however, use 
the article ; as * Goldsmith is a very pretty poet, 



38 everybody's business. 

but not to be compared to the Popes, the 
Dry dens, or the Otways.' And, again, ' I wish 
I had the wit of a Swift/ We also use the de- 
finite article before proper nouns, when a common 
noun is understood to be left out ; as ' The Dela- 
ware/ meaning the River Delaware ; also, when 
we speak of more than one person of the same 
name, as the Henries, the Edwards;" and no 
end of authorities might be produced in support 
of this assertion ; but, if we do not discard old 
formulae, when we cannot perceive their sense, 
nor their advocates have not the ability to indoc- 
trinate us by reasoning, we may rely, we shall only 
perpetuate error to the success of confusion. 
Now, there is not the slightest apparent reason 
why proper nouns shall not properly receive 
an article as a prefix, even in the chosen phrases 
of these gentlemen who have provided us with 
examples. Murray states, " Cicero becomes a 
common noun, because the article is prefixed to 
it." Why is this? What is the reason he assigns 
it a place among common nouns ? We are not 
bound to receive his statement, unless he submit 
to us the rule by which he comes to this conclu- 
sion, and let us judge for ourselves. 

A work that treats on language, is only fit for 
pipe-lights, unless it furnish us with reasons that 
will submit to a test. 



everybody's business. 39 

" Cicero " is not a common noun, when an 
article is prefixed to the word, on Mr. Murray's 
own showing, as he himself treats it as a proper 
noun, by writing the name with a capital initial 
letter. 

The same argument goes to disprove Rice's as- 
sertion, and also Cobbett's ; but Cobbett goes 
even farther, for he says, " In figurative lan- 
guage w r e sometimes, however, use the article, 
as • Goldsmith is a very pretty poet, but not 
to be compared to the Popes, the Drydens, or the 
Otways.' " 

We are here actually told the article is used, 
because i*t is figurative language; but why that 
illustrated sentence should be deemed " figurative 
language," and receive the prefixed article, and 
be styled a proper noun, any more than another 
sentence which might not be deemed figurative, 
because describing the career of the Browns, or 
the Joneses, or the Robinsons, appears to be very 
futile logic ; and Mr, Cobbett would be a bold 
man, and a waverer from his principles, if he were 
to practise according to his teachings, and write, 
" the Otways, the Popes, and the Drydens," com- 
mencing with capitals, and the initials of the 
Browns, the Joneses, and the Smiths with small 
letters. 



40 everybody's business. 

Mr. Cobbett then proceeds to say, speaking of 
" the Delaware," the common noun, river, is 
understood, " meaning the river Delaware." 

They are altogether mistaken, and Mr. C, 
by the same line of argument, might rule, that in 
speaking of the Queen of England the word 
woman is understood, meaning the "woman 
Queen," or in referring to the Emperor of France 
the word man is understood, meaning " the man 
Emperor." This is so manifestly absurd, that it 
is a matter of surprise that men with the learning 
of a Murray, a Rice, a Cobbett, a Lowth, and 
a host of others, profound scholars, should never 
have attempted to eradicate so transparently 
erroneous a notion from the treatises on English 
Language. 

As we have dwelt so much on the description 
of the proper noun, little is left to enable us 
to comprehend the nature of common nouns. 
Common nouns are names applicable to all the 
individuals of the same kind, as house, ship, 
tree, and every noun expressing a general idea. 

Now, as we can distinguish proper nouns from 
common nouns, we should know the uses of the 
distinction. It is chiefly to be sparing in the use 
of capital letters. Nearly all words that are 
common nouns, or any other part of speech, 



everybody's business, 41 

should commence with a small letter, and when 
we see writing abounding in unnecessary capitals, 
we may look for more serious errors. 

The rules for using capitals are, that every 
proper noun begins with a capital. 

Every sentence commences with a capital. 

Every word to which we wish to direct par- 
ticular attention, whatever part of speech it may 
be classed under, may be commenced with a 
capital. 

The next consideration of the attendant cir- 
cumstances on the noun is number, and this may 
be disposed of, by dispensing with labyrinths of 
examples, grammarians, generally, think proper to 
furnish us with. 

The number of a noun originates in unity, or 
one, which is termed the singular number, but 
when we desire our meaning to imply more than 
one we use the plural form of the word, which in 
many cases is effected by adding s, as word, words. 
We know all plurals are not formed by adding s, 
and almost everybody is acquainted with the 
plural form of singular nouns, therefore it would 
be waste of time to give examples. We would 
indeed be geese to require to be informed of the 
plural of goose. It is too absurd a proposition 
to demand attention. 

As grammarians have been so brief in their 



42 everybody's business. 

instructions in imparting the qualifications of 
words, so they have fallen into the opposite 
extreme and become too prolix in assigning pro- 
perties to nouns which are not only not inherent 
in the words, but are wholly independent and 
inconsequent of them, and are forced to a purport 
of which they are not susceptible. 

A vast amount of learning is certainly displayed 
by these scholars, though the skill may be of 
dubious value. They appear to clog the pivots 
of learning with a mucous fluid, that retards the 
rotation of the wheels, and they become feeble 
and feebler in their action, so that before the 
power of the spring reaches the balance, action 
ceases, and we are lost! we can proceed no 
further. 

We are told that one of the attributes of 
the noun is gender, and we are supplied with 
elaborate lists of rules to distinguish it, but no 
proofs are adduced, that gender is a property 
pertaining to the noun, no more than strength, 
ferocity, or meekness, is a consequence inherent 
in that part of speech. A male and a female, a 
man and a woman, a horse and a mare, an ewe 
and a sheep, are words identical of animals of 
different kinds, and there is not the slightest 
pretence for the presumption that one of these 
words can become changed or modified, for one 



everybody's business. 43 

in this respect, to represent or bear affinity to the 
other. "We might, with as much show of reason, 
endeavour to maintain that strength, and weakness, 
are incidental properties of the noun, and furnish 
illustrated examples in the words, dog and fox, 
cat and tiger, man and gorilla. But, may say 
our grammarians, w r e cannot surrender gender! 
We must have it for personification ; to personify 
inanimate objects, to give force to language in 
figurative speech ; that is, to describe a ship as 
she, the sun as he, the moon as she, &c. ; but 
this does not make it a part of grammar; no more 
than speaking in figurative or forcible terms ; we 
call a man a donkey, or brute ; or a charming 
woman, an angel. 

The noun undergoes no change from ] ife 
primary form to indicate gender, but 2 it under- 
goes an extraordinary mutation, and to z this 4 our 
attention should be concentrated; because the 
noun becomes so completely metamorphosed that 
b it requires some discrimination to discover & it 
in 7 its new guise. 

We will point out the transformations, or 
secondary forms of the nouns, in the sentence 
preceding this; and we will place figures against 
the transformed words to assist in reference. 

The first change is in the word noun : it 
becomes changed into l its. Instead of saying 



44 everybody's business. 

(< the noun undergoes no change — in the nouns 
prima?'?/ form " — we say l its primary form. The 
second transformation is also 2 it, and is from 
the same word, noun. The third is, the word, 
mutation, transformed into the word, z this. The 
fourth is the word, 4 our, standing in the place of 
the author and his readers, The fifth, the word, 
noun, becomes b it. The sixth, the same word, 
noun, is represented by 6 it ; and the seventh word, 
7 its, is also a representative of the same word 
noun. 

When a noun is transformed in this way, it is 
called by grammarians, a pronoun, a word used 
instead of a noun, and if it were not for the 
invention, of this substitute for the noun, we 
would be compelled continually to repeat the 
primary words, to the great detriment of commu- 
nication. 

When the primary word is a male, its repre- 
sentative is, he, his, or Mm; when a female, she, 
hers, or her ; and when an inanimate object is the 
subject, or we are unacquainted with its sex, we 
say it or its. They, theirs, or them, or thine, 
may represent any primary, or noun, male or 
female, or inanimate object, or when the sex is 
unknown, and this distinction, he, she, it, &c, 
grammarians have called gender, but as a male 
cannot represent, or by any means be transformed 



everybody's business. 45 

into a female, the definition is nothing more than 
a perpetuated mistake. 

As we now have a tolerably clear notion of what 
a noun is, and are also acquainted with it, in its 
secondary stage, when it becomes, what is termed 
a pronoun, we can follow up our inquiries, and 
examine into the various changes, these parts of 
speech undergo, to accord with the various words 
to which they bear relation and refer. 

The pronoun, as we perceive, undergoes a 
change, according with the differing circumstances 
in which it may be placed. We are informed, 
that " To nouns, belong gender, number, and 
case ; and they are all of the third person, 
when spoken of, and of the second when spoken 
to — as, ' Blessings attend us on every side ; be 
grateful, children of men.' " 

As a noun, in its primary form, admits of no 
change to indicate person; that is, the nouns " bless- 
ings " and " children/' whether we speak of them 
or to them, we can make use of no other terms than 
the words " blessings" or " children;" therefore, 
we cannot discern if they are in the first or in the 
third person, whilst, in their primary form ; but 
when we press into service our powers of substitu- 
tion, our pronouns, which are representatives of 
all nouns, we immediately perceive, the full 
range of a primary word, because its representative 



46 everybody's business. 

undergoes a complete transformation, to represent 
the different denominations of person, " Blessings 
attend us on every side." 

On referring back to page 35, we will perceive, 
by our test, that "blessings" and "side" are 
nouns. Now, what words will usurp the place 
of these nouns ? what pronouns can we use in 
their stead ? 

But we do not yet know what person means ; 
therefore, this must be our immediate subject of 
inquiry. 

If we wish to speak anything concerning our- 
selves, as an individual, we must make use of 
the word I" — " If /were you, I would listen 
to what he says, aboilt him" In this sentence, 
" I " represents the speaker, and he is termed the 
first person. The person addressed " you," is the 
second person; and "he," the person I am talking 
about, is the third person. 

The word " it," is classed by many of the 
learned among personal pronouns ; but examples 
by way of illustration are not given, showing 
wherein the word " it," stands in the place of, or 
represents a person. 

Some writers, after a vast amount of labour at 
this word " it/' have ultimately deserted it alto- 
gether, and, as if it were an incumbrance they 
did not know well how to rid themselves of, 



EVERYBODY S BUSINESS. 47 

have concluded by saying, " The word ' it,' is the 
greatest troubler I know of in language. 9 ' 

The only reason we can conceive for any pre- 
tensions in this word to stand among personal pro- 
nouns is, by taking one of Home Tooke's defini- 
tions of its attributes. He informs us that " it " 
is equivalent to "said;" as in the sentence, 
" the man is good," that is, the said man is good, 
" It" might refer to the man, or the said man ; 
as, " It (the said man, or the man) is good." 

This, certainly, is rather far-fetched, according 
to our notions of propriety ; and, as we ought 
only to define words, according to the sense they 
are received in at the period of their adaptation, 
this word " it," ought not to be classed among 
personal pronouns ; for to adopt terms that seem 
in direct opposition to reason, is worse than per- 
petuating error ; because it can only tend to dis- 
gust people with learning. They would, likely, 
throw aside their book, when argument, not 
admissible to common sense, is urged, imagining 
they can never accomplish that, which may be 
attainable, without the slightest mental effort, but 
for these perplexing problems. 

The word " it " is a pronoun, not used for 
persons, when we know that the person is a man 
or a woman. When the sex is unknown, or for 
objects inanimate, we substitute the word "it" 



48 everybody's business. 

for the noun, and say " It is a fine child." For 
brute creation we may use " it," or the pronoun 
denoting its sex, as " It is a fine mare," or " She 
is a fine mare ; " but in the following phrases 
doubt is implied, and therefore the word u it " is 
properly used, as 

" What is that yonder?" 

" It is a man." 

"Is it a man ? " 

" I did not know it was you." 

In all these cases doubt is implied. 

" Who was that you were speaking to ? " 

The sex is not named in this question, there- 
fore the answer would be correct by replying, 

" It was James." 

The answer agrees with the question, which is 
indeterminate. 

But if we name the sex in an interrogatory, 
that involves a personal pronoun in the reply. 
We cannot properly substitute " it " for the 
person, as 

" Who is that lady ? " 

" She is Mrs. Thompson/' 

"Who is that gentleman? " 

" He is Mr. Wilkinson." 

To say "It is" in these cases would be evi- 
dently improper. It would be a reply adverse to 
the proposition. 



everybody's business. 49 

We will here introduce Murray's table of 
personal pronouns, He says, 

" The persons of pronouns are three in each 
number, viz. 

/, is the first person ^ 

Thou, is the second person > Singular. 

He, she, or it, is the third person J 

We, is the first person *\ 

Ye or you, is the second person > Plural. 

They, is the third person J 

" This account of persons will be very intel- 
ligible, when we reflect, that there are three 
persons who may be the subject of any discourse : 
first, the person who speaks, may speak of him- 
self ; secondly, he may 'speak of the person to 
whom he addresses himself; thirdly, he may 
speak of some other person: and as the speakers, 
the persons spoken to, and the other persons 
spoken of may be many, so each of these persons 
must have the plural number. 

" The Numbers of pronouns, like those of sub- 
stantives, are two, the singular and the plural : 
as I, thou, he ; we, ye, or you^ they." 

The word " thou " has given place to you. It 
is not in the fashion to say " Thou art," we say 
" you are," though the former words are still in 
use in the sectarian phraseology of " the Friends." 

E 



50 everybody's business. 

We are told that " all nouns are of the third 
person when spoken of, and of the second when 
spoken to/ 5 that is, all nouns, animate or inanimate, 
are regarded as persons; and as nouns do not, 
like other words, vary in their formation, we may 
accept this definition, as it is sufficient for the 
purpose, and we cannot be led into error by it. 

Now let us refer back to page 45, and by 
observing the precepts set forth from that to this 
page our theory will be a proven fact. 

" Blessings attend us on every side/' 

Blessings is a noun, but, as this word under 
all phases is precisely similar, there can be no in- 
dication of, circumstance, in the word itself; 
but if we substitute the pronoun that would re- 
present the noun "blessings" we must use the 
word " They." Hence the rule " They are all of 
the third person when spoken of, and of the 
second when spoken to/' We are speaking of 
blessings, and " they," the third person plural 
would be the substituted word for blessings, and, 
as a principal is bound by its representative the 
word " blessings " must be in the third person, 
and the word side is bound by the same rule — its 
place being taken by " it." 

In the phrase, " Be grateful, children of men ;" 
we are addressing the ehildren ; we are not speak- 
ing of, but to them, and they would, properly, be 



everybody's business. 51 

represented by the pronoun " You." It is the 
second person, being spoken to ; the last word 
"Men" is spoken of; and in the third person, its 
representative pronoun being "them." This pro- 
noun is in the third person of the Objective case, 
but as we know nothing about " case" at present, 
we shall understand this better when we have 
more information on the subject; and this leads 
us to the consideration of case. 

A noun can only make sense, when in combi- 
nation with a word that denotes some kind of 
action " expressed or understood." This word 
that is identified with action, is called a " verb," 
and these "verbs" are representatives of words 
which intimate, in their expression, that an action 
is involved. 

If an Action be performed it must have an 
actor. It cannot, even, originate without an actor, 
which may be the noun or the pronoun ; this is the 
first simple position of the noun or pronoun, and 
is called the Nominative case. We will produce 
an example by way of illustration to our proposi- 
tion. " The fire raged very fiercely, but the men 
played on the flaming pile till they subdued it." 
" Fire " is the noun, it is the nominative, and 
raged is the subject verb that the noun acts upon, 
as " The Fire raged." The next nominative is 
" men." They " the men " played, and the third 
e 2 



52 everybody's business. 

nominative is " they," the subject being the word 
" subdued." 

The nominative then appears to be the naming, 
the asserting the first proposition ; it stands by 
itself as the principal governor or controller, the 
chief actor and principal of a sentence or subject 
referred to ; but if we ask, what is named, what is 
asserted, who or what is governed or controlled ; 
when we ascertain any of these replies we shall 
find the answered noun, the object, and, as the 
reply intimates, is in the " objective case." In 
the illustrated sentence, (C The men played." 
What did they play on ? On " the flaming pile ;" 
that signifies clearly the object, and is in the 
objective case. The men subdued — what did they 
subdue ? " it " the flaming pile, and " it " is in the 
objective case. It is very important to have a clear 
definition of case ; because, although nouns have no 
change to denote whether they are nominatives 
or objectives, yet, when they become pronouns in 
their new phase, the nominative case is entirely 
different from the objective. The nominative 
*'/" becomes objective " me" "We" nomi- 
native changes to "us" objective. "He" 
becomes "him" "She" becomes "her" and 
"they" in the objective case is "them;" from 
inattention to this, serious mistakes may occur, in 
transmitting what we wish to express, as well as 



EVERYBODY S BUSINESS. 



53 



in receiving the right impressions from subjects 
imparted to us. 

We are now prepared to receive, with some 
capacity for comprehending, what Murray says 
of pronouns : — 

u Pronouns have three cases, the nominative, 
the possessive, and the objective. 

" The objective case of a pronoun has, in 
general, a form different from that of the nomina- 
tive or the possessive case. 

" The personal pronouns are thus declined : — 



Person. 


Case. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


First 


Nom. 


I. 


We. 




Poss. 


Mine. 


Ours. 




Obj. 


Me. 


Us. 


Second. 


Nom. 


Thou. 


Ye or you. 




Poss. 


Thine. 


Yours. 




Obj. 


Thee. 


You. 


Third. 


Nom. 


He. 


They. 


Masc. 


Poss. 


His. 


Theirs. 




Obj. 


Him. 


Them. 


Third. 


Nom. 


She 


They. 


Fern. 


Poss. 


Hers. 


Theirs. 




Obj. 


Her. 


Them. 


Third. 


Nom. 


It. 


They. 


Neuter. 


Poss. 


Its. 


Theirs. 




Obj. 


It. 


Them. 



54 everybody's business. 

" Of the Relative Pronouns. 

" Relative pronouns are such as relate, in 
general, to some word or phrase going before, 
which is thence called the antecedent : they are, 
who, which, and that; as, ' The man is happy 
who lives virtuously.' 

" What is a kind of compound relative, includ- 
ing both the antecedent and the relative, and is 
mostly equivalent to that which : as, ' This is 
what I wanted;' that is to say, ' the thing ivhich 
I wanted.' 

" Who is applied to persons, which to animals 
irrational and things inanimate : as, ' He is a 
friend, who is faithful in adversity ; ' ' The bird, 
which sung so sweetly, is flown;' ' This is the 
tree, which produces no fruit.' 

" That, as a relative, is often used to prevent 
the too frequent repetition of who and which. It 
is applied to both persons and things : as, ' He that 
acts wisely deserves praise ; ' ' Modesty is a quality 
that highly adorns a woman.' 

" Who is of both numbers, and is thus 
declined : — 

Singular and Plural. 

Nominative. Who. 

Possessive. Whose. 

Objective. Whom. 



everybody's business. 55 

" Which, that, and what, are likewise of both 
numbers, but they do not vary their termination ; 
except that whose is sometimes used as the posses- 
sive case of which : as, c Is there any other doc- 
trine whose followers are punished V 

" And the fruit 

Of that forbidden tree whose mortal taste 

Brought death." " Milton. 

" Pure the joy without allay, 

Whose very rapture is tranquillity." Young. 

" The lights and shades, whose well accorded strife 

Gives all the strength and colour of our life." Pope. 

" This is one of the clearest characteristics of its being 

a religion ivhose origin is divine." Blair. 

" By the use of this license, one word is sub- 
stituted for three : as, ' Philosophy, whose end 
is to instruct us in the knowledge of nature/ 
for ( Philosophy, the end of ivhich is to instruct 
us,' &c. 

" Who, ivhich, and what, have sometimes the 
words soever and ever annexed to them ; as * who- 
soever or ivhoever, whichsoever or whichever, or 
whatsoever or whatever;' but they are seldom used 
in modern style, except whoever and whatever. 

" The word that is sometimes a relative, some- 
times a demonstrative pronoun, and sometimes a 
conjunction. It is a relative, when it may be 



56 everybody's business. 

turned into who or zvhich without destroying the 
sense : as, ' They that (who) reprove us, may be 
our best friends:' i From every thing that (which) 
you see, derive instruction.' It is a demonstra- 
tive pronoun when it is followed immediately by 
a substantive, to which it is either joined, or 
refers, and which it limits or qualifies ; as, ' That 
boy is industrious;' ( That belongs to me;' 
meaning, that book, that desk, &c. It is a con- 
junction, when it joins sentences together, and 
cannot be turned into who or which, without de- 
stroying the sense : as, f Take care that every day 
be well employed.' * I hope he will believe that 
I have not acted improperly.'^ 

" Who, which, and ivhat, are called Interroga- 
tives, when they are used in asking questions ; as 
< Who is he?' ' Which is the book?' < What 
art thou doing ? ' 

" Whether was formerly made use of to 
signify interrogation : as, ' Whether of these 
shall I choose ? ' but it is now seldom used, the 
interrogative which being substituted for it. 
Some Grammarians think that the use of it 
should be revived, as, like either and neither, it 
points to the dual number ; and would contribute 
to render our expressions concise and definite. 

" Some writers have classed the interrogatives 
as a separate kind of pronouns ; but they are too 



everybody's business. 57 

nearly related to the relative pronouns, both in 
nature and form, to render such a division proper. 
They do not, in fact, lose the character of rela- 
tives, when they become interrogatives. The 
only difference is, that without an interrogation, 
the relatives have reference to a subject which is 
antecedent, definite, and known; with an interro- 
gation, to a subject which is subsequent, indefi- 
nite, and unknown, and which it is expected that 
the answer should express and ascertain. 

" Of the Adjective Pronouns. 

" Adjective pronouns are of a mixed nature, 
participating the properties both of pronouns and 
adjectives. 

t9 The adjective pronouns may be subdivided 
into four sorts, namely, the possessive, the distri- 
butive, the demonstrative, and the indefinite. 

" The possessive are those which relate to pos- 
session or property. There are seven of them ; 
viz., my, thy, his, her, our, your, their. 

" Mine and thine, instead of my and thy, were 
formerly used before a substantive, or adjective, 
beginning with a vowel, or a silent h ; as, f Blot 
out all mine iniquities.' 

" The pronouns, his, mine, thine, have the same 
form, whether they are possessive pronouns, or 



58 everybody's business. 

the possessive cases of their respective personal 
pronouns. 

"A few examples will probably assist the 
learner to distinguish the possessive pronouns 
from the genitive cases of their correspondent 
personal pronouns. 

" The following sentences exemplify the pos- 
sessive pronouns. — 'My lesson is finished; Thy 
books are defaced ; He loves his studies ; She 
performs her duty; We own our faults; Your 
situation is distressing ; I admire their virtues.' 

" The following are examples of the possessive 
cases of the personal pronouns. — ' This desk is 
mine; the other is thine; These trinkets are his; 
those are hers; This house is ours, and that is 
yours; Theirs is very commodious.' 

" Some grammarians consider its as a possessive 
pronoun. 

" The two words own and self, are used in con- 
junction with pronouns. Gwn is added to posses- 
sives, both singular and plural : as, ' My own 
hand, our own house.' It is emphatical, and 
implies a silent contrariety or opposition : as, ' I 
live in my own house/ that is, 'not in a hired 
house.' Self is added to possessives : as, myself, 
yourselves ; and sometimes to personal pronouns : 
as, himself, itself, themselves. It then, like own, 



everybody's business. 59 

expresses emphasis and opposition : as, ' I did 
this myself,' that is, ( not another; ' or it forms a 
reciprocal pronoun : as, ' We hurt ourselves by 
vain rage.' 

"Himself, themselves, are now used in the 
nominative case, instead of hisself, theirs elves : 
as, ( He came himself;'' c He himself shall do 
this ; V They performed it themselves.' 

" 2. The distributive are those which denote 
the persons or things that make up a number, as 
taken separately and singly. They are each, 
every, either: as, e Each of his brothers is in a 
favourable situation ; ' * Every man must account 
for himself; \ ' I have not seen either of them.' 

"Each relates to two or more persons or things, 
and signifies either of the two, or every one of 
any number taken separately. 

"Every relates to several persons or things, 
and signifies each one of them all taken sepa- 
rately. This pronoun was formerly used apart 
from its noun, but it is now constantly annexed 
to it, except in legal proceedings : as, in the phrase 
6 all and every of them.' 

"Either relates to two persons or things taken 
separately, and signifies the one or the other. 
To say, ' either of the three/ is therefore im- 
proper. 

"Neither imports 'not either ;' that is, not one 



60 everybody's business. 

nor the other ; as, ' Neither of my friends was 
there/ 

"3. The demonstrative are those which precisely 
point out the subjects to which they relate : this 
and that, these and those, are of this class : as, 
' This is true charity ; that is only its image. 5 

" This refers to the nearest person or thing, and 
that to the most distant : as, ' This man is more 
intelligent than that.' This indicates the latter 
or last mentioned ; that, the former or first men- 
tioned : as, ' Both wealth and poverty are tempta- 
tions ; that, tends to excite pride, this, discon- 
tent.' 

"The words former and latter may, at the first 
view, appear to have the nature of demonstrative 
pronouns ; as in the following example : ' It was 
happy for the state, that Fabius continued in the 
command with Minucius : the former's phlegm was 
a check upon the latter's vivacity.' But those 
words are to be considered as adjectives ; and, in 
the example just given, as adjectives substantively 
used. 

" 4. The indefinite are those which express their 
subjects in an indefinite or general manner. The 
following are of this kind : some, other, any, one, 
all, such, &c. 

" Of these pronouns, only the words one and 
other are varied. One has a possessive case, 



everybody's business. 61 

which it forms in the same manner as substantives : 
as, one, ones. This word has a general significa- 
tion, meaning people at large ; and sometimes 
also a peculiar reference to the person who is 
speaking : as, ' One ought to pity the distresses of 
mankind/ e One is apt to love ones self.' This 
word is often used, by good writers, in the plural 
number : as, c The great ones of the world ; ' 
' The boy wounded the old bird, and stole the 
young ones ; ' e My wife and the little ones are in 
good health.' 

" Other is declined in the following manner : 

Singular. Plural. 

Nom. Other Others. 

Poss. Other's Others'. 

Obj. Other Others. 

" The plural others is only used when apart 
from the noun to which it refers, whether ex- 
pressed or understood : as, ' When you have 
perused these papers, I will send you the others. 9 
1 He pleases some, but he disgusts others. 9 When 
this pronoun is joined to nouns, either singular or 
plural, it has no variation : as, ' the other man,' 
6 the other men.' 

"The following phrases may serve to exemplify 
the indefinite pronouns. c Some of you are wise 
and good ;' ' A few of them were idle, the others 
industrious ; ' c neither is there any that is unex- 



62 everybody's business. 

ceptionable ; ' ' One ought to know ones own 
mind ;' ' They were all present f ' Such is the state 
of man, that he is never at rest ;' c Some are happy, 
while others are miserable/ 

" The word another is composed of the indefi- 
nite article prefixed to the word other. 

"None is used in both numbers : as, € None is 
so deaf as he that will not hear ;' ' None of those 
are equal to these.' It seems originally to have 
signified, according to its derivation, not one, and 
therefore to have had no plural ; but there is good 
authority for the use of it in the plural number : 
as, ' None that go unto her return again.' 
Prov. ii. 19. i Terms of peace ivere none 
vouchsaf 'd.' Milton. ' None of them are varied 
to express the gender.' ' None of them have 
different endings for the numbers.' Lowth's 
Introduction. ' None of their productions are 
extant.' Blair. 

" "We have endeavoured to explain the nature 
of the adjective pronouns, and to distinguish and 
arrange them intelligibly : but it is difficult, 
perhaps impracticable, to define and divide them 
in a manner perfectly unexceptionable. Some of 
them, in particular, may seem to require a 
different arrangement. We presume, however, 
that, for every useful purpose, the present classi- 
fication is sufficiently correct. All the pronouns, 



everybody's business. 68 

except the personal and relative, may indeed, in a 
general view of them, be considered as definitive 
pronouns, because they define or ascertain the 
extent of the common name, or general term to 
which they refer, or are joined ; but as each class 
of them does this, more or less exactly, or in a 
manner peculiar to itself, a division adapted to 
this circumstance appears to be suitable to the 
nature of things, and the understanding of 
learners. 

"It is the opinion of some respectable gram- 
marians, that the words this, that, any, some, such, 
his, their, our, Sec, are pronouns, when they are 
used separately from the nouns to which they 
relate ; but that, when they are joined to those 
nouns, they are not to be considered as belonging 
to this species of words ; because, in this associa- 
tion, they rather ascertain a substantive, than 
supply the place of one. They assert that, in the 
phrases, e give me that, 9 ' this is John's/ and ' such 
were some of you,' the words in italics are 
pronouns ; but that, in the following phrases, they 
are not pronouns ; c this book is instructive,' 
6 somehoys are ingenious,' ' my health is declining,' 
i our hearts are deceitful,' &c. Other grammarians 
think that all these words are pure adjectives ; and 
that none of them can properly be called pro- 
nouns ; as the genuine pronoun stands by itself, 



64 everybody's business. 

without the aid of a noun expressed or under- 
stood. They are of opinion, that in the expres- 
sions, ' Give me that;' ' this is John's/ &c. the 
noun is always understood, and must be supplied 
in the mind of the reader ; as, ' Give me that 
book;' ' this book is John's;' ' and such persons 
were some persons amongst you.' 

" Some writers are of opinion that the pronouns 
should be classed into substantive and adjective 
pronouns. Under the former, they include the 
personal and the relative ; under the latter, all the 
others. But this division, though a neat one, 
does not appear to be accurate. All the relative 
pronouns will not range under the substantive 
head. — We have distributed these parts of gram- 
mar, in the mode which we think most correct 
and intelligible : but for the information of 
students, and to direct their inquiries on the 
subject, we state the different opinions of several 
judicious grammarians." 

If words were confined merely to nouns, we 
would not be likely to err; but the paucity of 
terms, would not enable us to communicate our 
diversity of desires. If we are ignorant of gram- 
mar, we may have some difficulty in receiving a 
clear notion of subjects imparted to us, or w T e 
may use words, ourselves, that convey a different 
idea to that which we intended. 



everybody's business. 65 

*' Deer Jeames 

" Hive bin werry unfortnight with They 
pigs won hav bin cornfind with the cat-tell plage 
and tother with a familee of 3 lade up, with 
Mizzels hopping this Wil find you, Wei as it 
leves Me, At presen, sow No moor, from Me at 
presen 

" Yore troolie 

" Robbin Hodge." 

There is a considerable amount of mental 
capacity developed in Hodge's epistle. It bears 
evidence of an acquaintance with letters ; and the 
acquisition of possessing a knowledge of twenty- 
six objects, all differing in formation one from 
another, and mastering the difficulty of recognising 
them in three or four different forms ; and not 
only to recognise them, but to imitate, and repro- 
duce them in all their various combinations, 
indicates that the brain is an amazing, an admir- 
able, a marvellous structure of an impressionable 
nature for the retentive perception of objects, 
more variable than the apparently infinite pro- 
ductions from the evolutions of the kaleidoscope ; 
and although it might be an arduous task in- 
structing Hodge, or any one grown to manhood's 
estate, who has not availed himself of the advan- 
tages of acquiring a knowledge of ee common 
things," yet his capabilities may be estimated 

F 



68 everybody's business. 

from the evident result of his application in 
producing an epistle of the literary merits therein 
displayed. If Hodge, who has all the elements 
within him of an educated man, were properly 
instructed, he would be able to adjust and to dis- 
pose of his words in a comprehensible style, and 
express himself as intelligibly as we ; and as there 
is a wrong way, as well as a right one of address 
on most subjects, there is an exhibition of as 
much deficiency of literary accomplishment in the 
following short sentences, as in Hodge's pithy 
missive : — 

" James and me went to the play last night." . 

" William knows more than him." 

" John, James, and Thomas told me all about 
it, and I thanked him for the information. 

At page 51 we have learned what case is; and 
at page 53, we learn that the first person, nomina- 
tive case, is "I," and the objective "me," and 
" went " is a word expressive of action — 
verb : then who originated this action ? Why, 
" I " the nominative, and not " me," which is a 
word denoting the objective case. It should be 
" James and I went.' 5 " We " went ; not " us " 
went. 

We also see that "he- is nominative, and 
"him" objective; therefore, we cannot say "him 
knows," or " William knows more than him 



everybody's business. C7 

knows; 5 ' it must be, " William knows more than 
lie." John, James, and Thomas, are three per- 
sons, and must be represented by a plural pronoun. 
" I thanked them" not " him" 

" Who's there ?" " Me." Here is a sentence, 
the reply composed of only one word, and that 
word as wrong, as wrong as can be. The answer 
is in the nominative case* We cannot say, " Me 
am here." It must be " I." 

We have seen from our tables of pronouns 
which are the words that indicate possession, or, 
are in the " possessive case." 

The possessive case of nouns is indicated by an 
apostrophe s ; that is, the letter s is added to the 
word, with a small dot or comma over the letter, 
thus '5— as William's house, which means the 
house of William. 

When plural nouns end with an s, the apos- 
trophe only is placed beyond the word, the 's 
being omitted, as, " There were two boats' crews." 
When possession is the attribute of two or more 
persons or things coming together, or joined 
together by a word expressive of the conjunction, 
the sign of possession is attached to the last word 
only, as, " Brown, Jones, and Robinson's Drapery 
Establishment." 



f 2 



68 everybody's business. 

"Mind your Fs and Q's." 

"That's right, Sam'ell, spell it with a wee, 
spell it with a wee." 

And this reference to our ancient friend, Mr. 
"Weller^ reminds us to refer to some of our letters 
as a part of grammar, because of their connexion 
with " the article " which we have to say some- 
thing about. 

There are many persons like Sam'ell, who in 
speaking pronounce words beginning with w as 
if it commenced with v. They would call words 
vords ; and the reverse of this practice, or rather 
malpractice, is just as prevalent, and they speak 
of something being very vexing as if it were 
" wery wexing," but this has more to do with 
pronunciation than the part of grammar we are 
now treating of. 

There are but three words which come under 
the denomination of articles. They are a, an, 
and the. We have already referred to this part 
of speech in connexion with proper, and also with 
common nouns at page 37. A and an are in- 
definite articles, because they do not parti- 
cularize, define, or point out the special object 
referred to ; this is the office of the word " the" 
which is therefore called the definite article. 
" My "brother has purchased a house at Charlton, 
will you come and see the house." A house 



everybody's business. 69 

merely states the fact of a house being purchased, 
without allusion to any particular house, but the 
house refers to the particular house purchased. 
It points it out, it defines it, and is therefore the 
definite article. There are five letters in the 
alphabet, distinguishable from the other tweaty- 
one by their comprising perfect articulation within 
themselves. They are called vowels, and are, a, 
e, i, o, and u. 

" A vowel is a simple, articulate sound, perfect 
in itself, and formed by a continued effusion of 
the breath, and a certain conformation of the 
mouth, without any alteration in the position, or 
any motion of the organs of speech, from the 
moment the vocal sound commences, till it ends." 

The remainder of the letters are termed con- 
sonants, and a consonant requires the assistance 
of a vowel to fully intimate its sound, as, be, ce, 
de, ef, &c. 

"When we use the indefinite article before a 
word commencing with a consonant, we use the 
article a; but if an article be required for use 
before a word which commences with a vowel 
that article must be an. 

Euphony would immediately inform us there 
must be something wrong in the combination of 
such words as "An mouse," "A orange," "A 
apple." 



a 



70 everybody's business. 

In some instances we are permitted the use 
of the article, a, before words commencing with 
a vowel, as, "A usurper," "A useful article/' 
"A universal account," but we cannot say, 6t A 
untenable proposition." The reason appears to 
be, a certain harshness in the sound of the words 
An usurper," &c, arising from the words, 
although commencing with a vowel, being pro- 
nounced as if the first letter were a consonant, 
and as if it were spelt yusurper, yuseful, &c. 
Then, again, there are some words that commence 
with the letter " H," but as far as the utility or 
help of this in imparting a significant sound to 
these words, it might be dispensed with. 
" Hour," is pronounced " our ; " " Hotel," 
" otel ; " and these words combine with the 
indefinite article " An,'' as, " An hour, an 
hotel," &c. 

Almost all words that commence with "H," 
except those set forth in the following list, take 
the indefinite A before them, when the noun is 
spoken of indefinitely. 

Words that take the article " An " before 
them, because the H is not sounded : — 

Hotel. Hospital. 

Hour. Heir. 

Honest. Heiress. 

Honour. Hostler. 



everybody's business. 71 

Honourable. Humour. 

Honesty. Humorous. 

Adjectives. 

An adjective is a part of speech that expresses 
the quality, or defines the attribute of the noun ; 
as, " A white house, A blue book ; " white and 
blue are the adjectives. Adjectives belong to 
nouns, and they may represent the nouns in two 
stages. To adhere to the terms, as far as they 
are consistent with reason, used by grammarians, 
we wall call the first stage " The positive state " 
of the adjective ; and the word that predicates 
of the noun, something greater or less than the 
adjective in its positive state, " the comparative," 
as, "A good man," " A better man," " A bad 
man," " A worse man," " A large house/' " A 
larger house." " Good," is an adjective in the 
positive state ; " better," is a comparative adjec- 
tive. " Bad," is positive ; " worse," comparative. 
" Large," is positive ; " larger," comparative* 
These adjectives are so closely allied to nouns, 
that if we institute a comparison between the two 
parts of speech, we may, in many cases, readily 
find that the adjective can be resolved into 
the original noun from whence it receives its being. 



I A EVERYBODY S BUSINESS. 

" A little man," " A large child. 55 These adjec- 
tives are the progeny of the nouns " least 55 and 
" largest. 5 ' Grammarians have termed these 
nouns, " least and largest, 55 adjectives in the su- 
perlative degree of comparison ; but if we dip a 
little below the surface, we may see how much 
they are mistaken. 

When we apply our test for nouns, we can per- 
ceive that they are entitled to a place in that class 
of words ; and we must be just enough to allow 
them that pre-eminence over the adjective, which 
we incontestably prove they are entitled to : — 
The least is 

The largest is 

When a word can be treated in this way, we 
may depend it is a noun. And we think, that 
allw T ords that grammarians have designated adjec- 
tives of the superlative degree, are deprived of the 
rank, the honour, and dignity to which they are 
justly entitled. They are susceptible of all the 
attributes of nouns. They can claim substitution 
by pronouns ; they may be in the nominative, the 
possessive, or the objective case, and of the 
singular or plural number. No simple adjectives 
can be possessed of these powers. " I gave him 
the least, and he did not seem to like it." u If I 
give you the largest estate, will you be satisfied 



EVERYBODY S BUSINESS. 73 

with it" We may try our best to make an ad- 
jective of the words least and best ; but we must 
be very weak logicians, if we succeed in deceiving 
ourselves. Then, you men of philological lore 
must make up your minds to give up your super- 
lative adjective. It is only a phantasm, a creature 
of your too vivid imagination. It is entitled to 
higher degrees than those of an adjective ; it is a 
plain and simple noun ; and you have all these 
several years clothed it in unbecoming habili- 
ments. You have placed it in a false position ; 
but when right at last prevails, she is dominant, 
when she asserts her sway. 

Cobbett had some doubts of the position of this 
part of speech ; and, probably, if he had pursued 
the subject farther, he would have discovered the 
absolutism of superlatives, to the privileges of 
nouns : for he says, " When adjectives are used 
as nouns, they must in all respects be treated as 
nouns. ' The guilty, the innocent, the rich, the 
poor, are mixed together.' But we cannot say, 
1 a guilty, 5 meaning to use the word guilty as a 
noun." 

And Murray is remarkably close to the same 
idea, as he remarks that — 

" An adjective put without a substantive, 
with the definite article before it, becomes a sub- 
stantive in sense and meaning, and is written as 



/4 EVERYBODY S BUSINESS. 

a substantive ; as, ' Providence rewards the good, 
and punishes the bad. 3 " 

Murray's illustrations of the qualities, force, 
and uses of the adjective, with the exception of 
the " degrees of comparison," enter so fully into 
the particular merits of this part of speech, that 
we might fail if we ventured to attempt any other 
elucidation. He says : — 

"Every adjective, and every adjective pronoun, 
belongs to a substantive, expressed or understood ; 
as, c He is a good, as well as a wise man ; ' ' Feiv 
are happy ; 5 that is, 'persons:' c This is a pleasant 
walk ;' that is, ' This walk is, 9 &c. 

"Adjective pronouns must agree, in number, 
with their substantives ; as, f This book, these 
books ; that sort, those sorts ; another road, 
other roads.' 

'" 1. Adjective Pronouns. 

"A few instances of the breach of this rule 
are here exhibited. ' I have not travelled this 
twenty years ;' ( these twenty,' 'X am not re- 
commending these kind of sufferings ; ? ' this 
kind.' ' Those set of books was a valuable 
present ; ' ' that set. 5 

1 . " The word means in the singular number, and 
the phrases, c By this means, 9 'By that means, 9 
are used by our best and most correct writers ; 



everybody's business. 75 

namely, Bacon, Tillotson, Atterbury, . Addison, 
Steele, Pope, &c* They are, indeed, in so 

* " By this means, he had them the more at vantage, 
being tired and harassed with a long march." — Bacon. 

"By this means one great restraint from doing evil, 
would be taken away." — " And this is an admirable means 
to improve men in virtue." — " By that means they have 
rendered their duty more difficult." — Tillotson. 

" It renders us careless of approving ourselves to God, 
and by that means securing the continuance of His good- 
ness." — " A good character, when established, should not 
be rested in as an end, but employed as a means of doing 
still further good." — Atterbury. 

" By this means they are happy in each other." — "He 
by that means preserved his superiority." — Addison. 

"Your vanity by this means will want its food." — 
Steele. 

" By this means alone, their greatest obstacles will 
vanish " — Pope. 

" Which custom has proved the most effectual means to 
ruin the nobles." — Dean Swift. 

"There is no means of escaping the persecution." — 
" Faith is not only a means of obeying, but a principal 
act of obedience." — Dr. Young-. 

"He looked on money as a necessary means of main- 
taining and increasing power." — Lord Lyttelton's Henry 
II. 

" John was too much intimidated not to embrace every 
means afforded for his safety." — Goldsmith. 

" Lest this means should fail." — " By means of ship- 
money, the late king," &c. — "The only means of securing 
a durable peace." — Hume. 



76 everybody's business, 

general and approved use, that it would appear 
awkward, if not affected, to apply the old 
singular form, and say, ( By this mean, by that 
mean, it was by a mean ; ' although it is more 
agreeable to the general analogy of the language. 
' The word means (says Priestly) belongs to the 
class of words which do not change their termi- 
nation on account of number ; for it is used alike 
in both numbers.' 

" The word amends is used in this manner, in 
the following sentences : ' Though he did not 
succeed, he gained the approbation of his country; 
and with this amends he was content.' ' Peace of 
mind is an honourable amends for the sacrifices 
of interest.' ' In return, he received the thanks 
of his employers, and the present of a large 
estate : these were ample amends for all his 
labours.' 'We have described the rewards of 

" By this means there was nothing left to the Parliament 
of Ireland," &c. — Blackstone. 

" By this means so many slaves escaped out of the hands 
of their masters." — Dr. Bobertson. 

"By this means they bear witness to each other." — 
Burke. 

" By this means the wrath of man was made to turn 
against itself." — Dr. Blair. 

u A magazine, which has, by this means, contained, &c." 
— " Birds, in general, procure their food by means of 
their heak^ — Dr. Paley. 



EVERYBODY S BUSINESS. li 

vice : the good man's amends are of a different 
nature.' 

" It can scarcely be doubted, that this word 
amends (like the word means) had formerly its 
correspondent form in the singular number, as it 
is derived from the French amende, though now 
it is exclusively established in the plural form. 
If, therefore, it be alleged that mean should be 
applied in the singular, because it is derived 
from the French moyen, the same kind of argu- 
ment may be advanced in favour of the singular 
amende ; and the general analogy of the language 
may also be pleaded in support of it. 

" Campbell, in his ' Philosophy of Rhetoric/ 
has the following remark on the subject before 
us : c No persons of taste will, I presume, venture 
so far to violate the present usage, and conse- 
quently to shock the ears of the generality of 
readers, as to say, " By this mean, by that mean." ' 

" Bishop Hurd, quoted in Todd's Johnson's 
Dictionary, under the word means, observes, that 
' The use of the word means, in English, is 
remarkable, and may be thought capricious. It 
seems to be of French extraction. The French 
have le moyen frequently, but seldom les mot/ens. 
We, on the contrary, prefer the plural termina- 
tion means; yet still, for the most part, though 
not always, we use it as a noun of the singular 



78 everybody's business. 

number, or as the French le moyen. It is one of 
those anomalies, which use hath introduced and 
established, in spite of analogy. We should not 
be allowed to say — a mean of making men happy. 5 

" It is remarkable that our present version of 
the Scriptures makes no use, as far as the Com- 
piler can discover, of the word mean; though 
there are several instances to be found in it of 
the use of means, in the sense and connexion 
contended for. ' By this means thou shalt have 
no portion on this side the river/ (Ezra. iv. 16.) 
'That by means of death,' &c. (Heb. ix. 15.) 
It will scarcely be pretended that the translators 
of the sacred volumes did not accurately under- 
stand the English language ; or that they would 
have admitted one form of this word, and rejected 
the other, had not their determination been con- 
formable to the best usage. An attempt, there- 
fore, to recover an old word, so long since disused 
by the most correct writers, seems not likely to 
be successful; especially as the rejection of it is 
not attended with any inconvenience. 

" The practice of the best and most correct 
writers, or a great majority of them, corroborated 
by general usage, forms, during its continuance, 
the standard of language ; especially if, in par- 
ticular instances, this practice continue, after 
objection and due consideration. Every con- 



everybody's business. 79 

nexion and application of words and phrases, thus 
supported, must therefore be proper, and entitled 
to respect, if not exceptionable in a moral point 
of view. 

" < Si volet U3U3 

" Quern penes arbitriimi est, et jus, et norma loquendi.' 

Hon. 

" On this principle, many forms of expression, 
not less deviating from the general analogy of 
the language, than those before mentioned, are 
to be considered as strictly proper and justi- 
fiable. Of this kind are the following. 'None 
of them are varied to express the gender ; ' 
and yet none originally signified no one. ( He 
himself shall do the work : ' here, what was 
at first appropriated to the objective, is now 
properly used as the nominative case. ' You 
have behaved yourselves well : ' in this example, 
the word yoa is put in the nominative case plural, 
with strict propriety ; though formerly it was 
confined to the objective case, and ye regularly 
used for the nominative. 

"Either is often used improperly, instead of 
each : as, ' The king of Israel, and Jehoshaphat 
the king of Judah, sat either of them on his 
throne ;' ' Nadab and Abihu, the sons of Aaron, 
took either of them his censer.' Each signifies 
both of them taken distinctly or separately ; either 



SO everybody's business. 

properly signifies only the one or the other of 
them taken disjunctively. 

" Chief, extreme, perfect, right, universal, 
supreme/ &c. ; are sometimes improperly written, 
6 Chiefest, extremest, perfectest, rightest, most 
universal, most supreme,' &c. The following ex- 
pressions are therefore improper. ( He sometimes 
claims admission to the chiefest offices/ ' The 
quarrel became so universal and national ; ' ( A 
method of attaining the rightest and greatest 
happiness/ The phrases, so perfect, so right, so 
extreme, so universal, &c, are incorrect ; because 
they imply that one thing is less perfect, less ex- 
treme, &c, than another, which is not possible." 

At page 74 we are told "I have not travelled 
this twenty years " is an incorrect phrase, and the 
word "this" is treated as an adjective and 
" twenty years " as a compound noun. We are 
advised that the word " this " ought to be 
" these." It appears that " twenty years " being 
used as a compound noun, to make the sentence 
correct, should have a hyphen between the two 
words, to show they are conjoined, or that the 
two words are intended to be used as one ; thus, 
" twenty-years : " but we don't see that any ex- 
ception can possibly be taken to the phrase, " I 
have not travelled this twenty-years." " Twenty," 
if regarded as a noun, may be considered, a noun 



everybody's business. 81 

of multitude, or several objects comprised in one, 
an expression of unity, in combination with the 
word, will prove this, and this proof of unity lies 
with the indefinite article " a." " Twenty is a 
large number." " Twenty years is a number of 
years." 

It would be sheer nonsense to say, " Twenty 
years are a number of years." Therefore, " I 
have not travelled— for a number — this twenty- 
years " cannot be incorrect. 

At page 79 " He himself shall do the work ; " 
is referred to, as another example of an incorrect 
phrase ; and we are told that " Here what was at 
first appropriated to the objective, is now pro- 
perly used as the nominative case." 

But " himself " is a pronoun in the objective 
case ; and seems strictly correct in its own proper 
character. If we transpose the sentence, the force 
of this argument will be transparent. 

" He himself shall do the work/' 

" He shall do the work himself/' 

" He shall himself, or by himself, do the work." 

Himself is clearly traced to a connexion with 
the significant actor — the doer— which is an active 
verb, governing the pronoun, "himself," the 
word " by " which is called, a preposition, may be 
supplied to show the government over the pro- 
noun. 

G 



82 everybody's business. 

" He shall do, by himself, the work/' 

At page 80 we are informed that " Chiefs 
extreme, perfect, right, universal, supreme," &c. 
are sometimes improperly written " Chiefest, ex- 
tremest, perfectest, rightest, most universal, most 
supreme," &c., but we do not perceive the 
slightest grounds for cavilling at this sentence. 

" The chiefest is the superlative of eminence," 
and we have a vivid conception of " The very 
Chief, or the Greatest Chief." " There were 
several chiefs assembled at West Africa, but 
the King of Dahomey was the most powerful. 
He was chiefest of them all." So we may 
say, " The extremest point of the precipice," or 
"He went to extremes," or "The greatest 
extremes," and there appears no rigidity in the 
expressions. We may regard anything as " more 
chief" or chiefer, as more black or blacker, 
or more white or whiter. 

We consider Lindley Murray's the very best 
book on grammar ; therefore it is with much 
respect and reluctance we venture to differ from 
him, and would not do so, if we could not adduce 
undeniable evidence of the fallacy of his tenets ; 
and, his very self, we may offer to testify to what 
we have advanced. According to his showing we 
cannot say " so perfect " or "more correct/' and 
yet at page 122 we are informed by Mr. Murray 



EVERYBODY S BUSINESS. 83 

of what the practice is, of " the best and most 
correct writers." 

There are kome things from their very nature 
involving invariable laws, w T ill not admit of com 
parison by an adjective ; or of superlative exis- 
tence by a noun, because such terms would imply 
alterableness or variation, non-existent with their 
material properties. A circle cannot be a circle, 
if all the radii are not equidistant from its centre 
to its periphery, therefore we cannot say " a more 
circle" or "more circular/' as it would be ab- 
surdly opposed to mathematical precision. So a 
square : if at any point of its four sides there be 
divergence from a true or right line, or any of its 
angles measure not exactly ninety degrees it is 
not a square, therefore we cannot say that one 
object is more square than another ; this language 
would militate against the necessary precision of 
mathematical science, though it might not be a 
flagrant offence against the rules of grammar. 
We might say one object was rounder than 
another, or " This stick is straiter than that," 
although to express ourselves with mathematical 
exactness such terms would be inadmissible. 

"In some cases, adjectives should not be 

separated from their substantives, even by words 

which modify their meaning, and make but one 

sense with them: as, <A large enough number 

g 2 



84 everybody's business. 

surely.' It should be, c A number large enough.' 
f The lower sort of people, are good enough 
judges of one not very distant from them.' 



" The adjective is usually placed before its 
substantive : as, '. A generous man;' 'How amiable 
a woman ! *. The instances in which it comes 
after the substantive, are the following. 

" 1st. When something depends upon the 
adjective ; and when it gives a better sound, 
especially in poetry : as, ' A man generous to his 
enemies ; ' f Feed me with food convenient for me ;' 
c A tree three feet thick/ ' A body of troops 
fifty thousand strong ; ' c The torrent tumbling 
through rocks abrupt/ 

"2d. When the adjective is emphatical : as, 
6 Alexander the Great ; ' ' Lewis the Bold; ' 
' Goodness infinite ; ' ' Wisdom unsearchable/ 

" 3d. When several adjectives belong to one 
substantive : as, ' A man just, wise, and chari- 
table ; ' ' A woman modest, sensible, and virtuous.' 

"4th. When the adjective is preceded by an 
adverb : as, c A boy regularly studious ; ' ' A girl 
unaffectedly modest.' " 

The Conjunction 
A conjunction is a part of speech that forms a 



EVERYBODY'S BUSINESS. CO 

connecting link, by which one portion of a subject 
or sentence is joined to the other. 

The word " and " appears to be the most 
powerful and strongly marked by its cementing 
properties, in uniting the several and separate 
ideas, conveyed by words to each other ; and this 
is called a " copulative conjunction." 

The word "or" has equal power, but in an 
opposite direction ; that is whilst it firmly joins 
two parts of sentences together ; expresses 
contrast or opposition. It seems a paradox to 
speak of a word as a " disconnective connective ;" 
but this is the term assigned to this particle. It 
is called a disjunctive conjunction; from its 
peculiar office of expressing opposition whilst it 
has a combining character in connecting phrases, 
&c, together. 

" The following is a list of the principal Con- 
junctions. 

" The Copulative. And, if, that, both, then, 
since, for, because, therefore, wherefore. 

" The Disjunctive. But, or, nor, as, than, lest, 
though, unless, either, neither, yet, notwith- 
standing." 

Murray says, " Till men began to think in a 
train, and to carry their reasonings to a consider- 
able length, it is not probable that they would 
make much use of conjunctions, or of any other 



86 everybody's business. 

connectives. Ignorant people, and children gene- 
rally speak in short and separate sentences. The 
same thing is true of barbarous nations : and 
hence uncultivated languages are not well sup- 
plied with connecting particles. The Greeks 
were the greatest reasoners that ever appeared in 
the world ; and their language, accordingly, 
abounds more than any other in connectives. 

" Conjunctions are not equally necessary in all 
sorts of writing. In poetry, where great concise- 
ness of phrase is required, and every appearance 
of formality avoided, many of them would have a 
bad effect. In passionate language too, it may be 
proper to omit them : because it is the nature of 
violent passion, to speak rather in disjointed 
sentences, than in the way of inference and 
argument. Books of aphorisms, like the Proverbs 
of Solomon^ have few connectives ; because they 
instruct, not by reasoning, but in detached obser- 
vations. And narrative will sometimes appear 
very graceful, when the circumstances are plainly 
told, with scarcely any other conjunction than the 
simple copulative and: which is frequently the 
case in the historical parts of Scripture. — When 
narration is full of images or events, the omission 
of connectives may, by crowding the principal 
words upon one another, give a sort of picture of 
hurry and tumult, and so heighten the vivacity of 



everybody's business. 87 

description. But when facts are to be traced 
down through their consequences, or upwards to 
their causes ; when the complicated designs of 
mankind are to be laid open, or conjectures offered 
concerning them ; when the historian argues either 
for the elucidation of truth, or in order to state 
the pleas and principles of contending parties ; 
there will be occasion for every species of connec- 
tive, as much as in philosophy itself. In fact, it 
is in argument, investigation, and science, that 
this part of speech is peculiarly and indispensably 
necessary." 

O Yes ! O Yes!! O Yes ! ! ! We are now 
fairly introduced to one of the most interesting 
parts of speech in language, O Yes ! O Yes ! ! 
O Yes ! ! ! These words are nothing more nor 
less than interjections. There is no actual 
meaning in the words, beyond a note-call to attract 
attention to the relation that follows. 

This part of speech is dreadfully abused by 
Home Tooke. It appears considerably to have 
hurt his feelings, which is evidence of its intensity. 
He calls it, " The brutish inarticulate interjec- 
tion " which " is only the miserable refuge of the 
selfish," and says, " Will you find it amongst 
laws, or in books of civil institutions, in history, 
or in any treatise of useful arts or sciences ? No. 
You must seek for it in rhetoric and poetry, in 



88 everybody's business. 

novels, plays, and romances," and to sustain this 
character of despising, one of the most expressive 
signs pertaining to humanity as well as brutes ; 
he places a period after the word ' No ; ' instead 
of the proper and more appropriate mark of 
exclamation ' No ! ' " 

The fact is, Mr. Home Tooke's " Diversions of 
Purley," abounds in interjections, according to 
the generally received notion of the term. He 
could not have written so cleverly, and so im- 
pressively without their aid ; therefore, he, at 
least, ought to be among the last to abuse that, 
whose powerful aid he is so much indebted to. 

We are prepared to admit, with Home Tooke, 
that the grunt of the pig, or the bark of the dog, 
are tantamount to interjections ; and what can be 
more impressive than the bark of the dog, accom- 
panied by a savage expression of the eye, and a 
low growl ? It is speech of the utmost perspicuity 
— as plain as dog can speak — " I am very angry, 
and if you come near, I will bite you ! " And we 
are often more deserving of merit than censure, 
in forming our lines of conduct from the lessons 
conveyed by the lower animals ; for shall we 
" Fall out, and chide and fight," when " Birds in 
their little nests agree." 

No part of speech is more forceful than an in- 
terjection. The dramatic " Ah! ah! ah!" the 



everybody's business. 81) 

stage expletive, generally is introduced with 
telling eloquence ! This word " Ah! " is an inter- 
jection. Marks of exclamation in writing; thus, 
" ! " have all the force of interjections. And 
what a multiplicity of words is saved ! and what a 
vast amount of intelligence is conveyed by this 
mark ? of interrogation ! Such signs are not 
to be despised. In the " play within a Play, 55 
the mere nod of Lord Burleigh, is said to be 
redundantly full of expression ; and if it were the 
fashion for the ladies to " do the speeching " at 
our public entertainments, their eloquence would 
be sensation themes ! their eyes would speak 
volumes ! ! and their every movement would be 
indicative of some graceful expression to astonish 
and delight us ! ! ! 

Interjections are expressions of mental excite- 
ment ; they portray the passions, and are expres- 
sive of wonder, surprise, grief &c. ; such as Oh ! 
oh! Alas! Lo ! Behold! Hark! All hail! Non- 
sense ! Silence ! Is it possible ! really ! &c. ; but 
many interjectional expressions may be resolved 
into other parts of speech. 



We have now to treat of prepositions. What 
this unpretentious particle has done to be invested 
with so much dignity, attributed to it by nearly 



90 everybody's business. 

all grammarians, is beyond our comprehension. 
It appears nothing more than a sort of " go 
between." 

When a verb is employed to govern a noun, 
the preposition comes in as a helpmate, and 
attaches itself to the verb, to assist in controlment 
over the noun. They are always at the service 
of the verbs; but, as the verbs to which they 
refer are not always expressed, the connexion 
appears to be lost sight of. Prepositions are in a 
similar position to numerals, not of the slightest 
use or any meaning in them of themselves, but 
are intimately connected and amalgamated with 
something else, without reference to which their 
position could not be maintained. 

Of what use is 1, one ; 2, two ; 3, three ; or 
4, four, or the perplexing mass of figures the 
accountant has to deal with ? They would be 
utterly incomprehensible, without reference to 
their principals on which they depend. One 
thousand has no definite meaning in itself, but 
requires the assistance of another, or of a sign 
representing another w T ord to complete the sense, 
as £1,000, which is significant of money, or 
1,000 lbs., which may mean potatoes, or 1,000 yds., 
which may mean cloth, or whatever the subject 
matter refers to ; but like the prepositions, unless 
we understand the objects, under relation, we 



everybody's business. 91 

shall have but a cloudy comprehension of our 
business. 

Prepositions are said to govern the objective 
case, because if a pronoun follow the preposition, 
that pronoun must be him or them, &c, not he or 
they ; but it is not the preposition that has this 
effect over the noun or pronoun, but it is a verb 
that is the controlling power ; and in consequence 
of the preposition accompanying the verb, it is 
said erroneously, " Prepositions govern nouns 
and pronouns," "and cause them to be in the ob- 
jective case." Thus, its original use seems to 
be entirely lost sight of. A verb, or word, that 
implies direct action to, or on its object, does not 
seek aid from a preposition, as, " I beat," or " I 
love." If we beat or love, it is evident the object 
must be acted on, or the objective case must follow, 
as, " I beat." Who ? " I beat him," " I love 
her ;" hence the rule, " Active verbs govern the 
objective case ; " but there are some verbs, or 
words representative of action, which are what 
grammarians call neuter, or intransitive ; that is, 
they say, " The effect is confined within the 
subject, and does not pass over to any object; as, 
c I sit, he lives, they sleep.' " In fact, w T hat 
grammarians have denominated a neuter or an 
intransitive verb is virtually a transitive verb ; 
the active power is inherent in the verb, but 



92 everybody's business. 

requires the assistance of a preposition to transfer 
its energy on the nouns and pronouns. 

In the sentence " I am delighted with him" 
the verb " to be " exerts its influence over the pro- 
noun him by the assistance of the preposition 
with. " I am him " does not make a sentence, 
but with the help of the preposition the sense is 
completed, " as I am with him," or " I am with 
him delighted." This is so plain a matter as 
scarcely to need further illustration ; but as gram- 
marians have stated, " prepositions govern the 
objective case," without reference to any other 
part of speech, and furnish us with examples 
such as " The house of my friend," it is neces- 
sary to enquire what meaning can be attached to 
such phrases ; and this will be the means of 
strengthening our position in regard to the defi- 
nition we have given. It is evident that the 
words, " The house of my friend," intimates 
nothing, but there must be some other notion 
appended to convey the information intended. 
"We may say, " That is the house of my friend." 
Here we have a definite explanation, which is 
entirely lost without the verb " to be," repre- 
sented in the word " is." " That is of my friend, 
his house I am speaking of; " and the word — the 
preposition — "of" shows "friend" to be in the 
objective case, but it is certainly in connexion 



EVERYBODY S BUSINESS. 



93 



Of 


into 


above 


at 


off 


to 


within 


below 


near 


on or upon 


for 


without 


between 


up 


among 


by 


over 


beneath 


down 


after 


with 


under 


from 


before 


about 


in 


through 


beyond 


behind 


against. 



with the intransitive verb, and in the same way 
every preposition will be found connected with a 
verb, expressed or understood, if we trace it 
properly, or complete imperfect sentences. 

Some of the principal of these connectives and 
verbs assistants, or prepositions, are as follows. 

The following is a list of the principal preposi- 
tions : — 
f in 
> wi 

>r wi 
y o\ 
ith ui 
l th 

Murray says of adverbs, — 
" An adverb is a part of speech joined to a 
verb, an adjective, and sometimes to another 
adverb, to express some quality or circumstance 
respecting it : as, ' He reads zvell; ' ' A truly good 
man ; ' ' He writes very correctly.' 

" Some adverbs are compared, thus, c Soon, 
sooner, soonest ; ' ' often, oftener, oftenest.' Those 
ending in ly, are compared by more, and most : as, 
' "Wisely, more wisely, most wisely/ 

"Adverbs seem originally to have been con- 
trived to express compendiously in one word 
what must otherwise have required two or more : 
as, ' He acted wisely,' for he acted with wisdom ; 



94 everybody's business. 

' prudently,' for, with prudence ; ' He did it here/ 
for, he did it in this place ; c exceedingly,' for, to a 
great degree ; ' often and seldom,' for many, and for 
few times ; ' very/ for, in an eminent degree, &c. 

" There are many words, in the English lan- 
guage, that are sometimes used as adjectives, 
and sometimes as adverbs : as, ' More men than 
women were there ; ' or, ' I am more diligent than 
he.' In the former sentence, more is evidently 
an adjective, and in the latter, an adverb. There 
are others, that are sometimes used as substan- 
tives, and sometimes as adverbs : as, ( To-day's 
lesson is longer than yesterday's ; ' here, to-day 
and yesterday are substantives, because they are 
words that make sense of themselves, and admit 
besides of a genitive case: but in the phrase, 
6 He came home yesterday, and sets out again 
to-day/ they are adverbs of time ; because they 
answer to the question when. The word much is 
used as all three : as, ' Where much is given, 
much is required ; ' ' Much money has been 
expended ; ' * It is much better to go than to stay/ 
In the first of these sentences, much is a substan- 
tive ; in the second, it is an adjective ; and in the 
third, an adverb. In short, nothing but the 
sense can determine what they are. 

" Adverbs, though very numerous, may be re- 
duced to certain classes, the chief of which are 



everybody's business. 95 

those of Number, Order, Place, Time, Quantity, 
Manner or Quality, Doubt, Affirmation, Nega- 
tion, Interrogation, and Comparison. 

"1. Of number : as, ( Once, twice, thrice,' &c. 

" 2. Of order: as, ' First, secondly, thirdly, 
fourthly, fifthly, lastly, finally/ &c. 

"3. Of place : as, ' Here, there, where, else- 
where, anywhere, somewhere, nowhere, herein, 
whither, hither, thither, upward, downward, for- 
ward, backward, whence, hence, thence, whither- 
soever,' &c. 

" 4. Of time. 

"Of time present : as, 'Now, to-day,' &c. 

" Of time past : as, ' Already, before, lately, 
yesterday, heretofore, hitherto, long since, long 
ago/ &c. 

" Of time to come : as, ' To-morrow, not yet, 
hereafter, henceforth, henceforward, by and by, 
instantly, presently, immediately, straightways/ 
&c. 

" Of time indefinite : as, ' Oft, often, oft-times, 
often-times, sometimes, soon, seldom, daily, 
weekly, monthly, yearly, always, when, then. 
ever, never, again,' &c. 

" 5. Of quantity : as, ' Much, little, sufficiently, 
how much, how great, enough, abundantly/ &c. 

" 6. Of manner or quality : as, ( Wisely, 
foolishly, justly, unjustly, quickly, slowly/ &c» 



96 

Adverbs of quality are the most numerous kind ; 
and they are generally formed by adding the ter- 
mination ly to an adjective or participle, or 
changing le into ly : as, ' Bad, badly ; cheerful, 
cheerfully ; able, ably ; admirable, admirably.' 

" 7. Of doubt : as, ' Perhaps, peradventure, 
possibly, perchance.' 

"8. Of affirmation: as, c Verily, truly, un- 
doubtedly, doubtless, certainly, yea, yes, surely, 
indeed, really,' &c. 

"9. Of negation : as, c Nay, no, not, by no 
means, not at all, in no wise,' &c. 

" 10. Of interrogation: as, 6 How, why, where- 
fore, whether,' &c. 

"11. Of comparison: as, 'More, most, better, 
best, worse, worst, less, least, very, almost, little, 
alike/ &c. 

" Besides the adverbs already mentioned, there 
are many which are formed by a combination of 
several of the prepositions with the adverbs of 
place, here, there, and where : as, c Hereof, thereof, 
whereof ; hereto, thereto, whereto ; hereby, there- 
by, whereby ; herewith, therewith, wherewith ; 
herein, therein, wherein ; therefore, (i. e. there- 
for,) wherefore (i. e. where-for,) hereupon, or 
hereon, thereupon or thereon, whereupon or 
whereon/ &c. Except therefore, these are seldom 
used. 



everybody's business. 97 

" In some instances the preposition suffers no 
change, but becomes an adverb merely by its ap- 
plication : as when we say, ' he rides about ; ' ' he 
was near falling ;' € but do not after lay the blame 
on me.' 

" There are also some adverbs, which are com- 
posed of nouns, and the letter a used instead of 
at, on, &c. : as, ' Aside, athirst, afoot, ahead, 
asleep, aboard, ashore, abed, aground, afloat,' &c. 

" The words when and where, and all others of 
the same nature, such as, whence, whither, when- 
ever, wherever, &c, may be properly called adver- 
bial conjunctions, because they participate the 
nature both of adverbs and conjunctions : of con- 
junctions, as they conjoin sentences ; of adverbs, 
as they denote the attributes either of time, or of 
place. 

" It may be particularly observed, with respect 
to the word therefore, that it is an adverb, when, 
without joining sentences, it only gives the sense 
of, for that reason. "When it gives that sense, and 
also connects, it is a conjunction : as, ' He is good, 
therefore he is happy/ The same observation 
may be extended to the words consequently, ac- 
cordingly, and the like. When these are subjoined 
to and, or joined to if, since, &c, they are adverbs, 
the connexion being made without their help : 
when they appear single, and unsupported by any 

H 



98 everybody's business. 

other connective, they may be called conjunc- 
tions. 

" The same word is occasionally used both as a 
conjunction and as an adverb ; and sometimes, as 
a preposition. ' I rest then upon this argument ;' 
then is here a conjunction : in the following 
phrase, it is an adverb; ' He arrived then, and not 
before.' 6 1 submitted ; for it was vain to resist :' 
in this sentence, for is a conjunction ; in the next, 
it is a proposition : ' He contended for victory 
only.' In the first of the following sentences, 
since is a conjunction ; in the second, it is a pre- 
position ; and in the third, it is an adverb : 
■■ Since we must part, let us do it peaceably : ' ' I 
have not seen him since that time : ' ' Our friend- 
ship commenced long since. 9 

" 4. Adjectives are sometimes improperly ap- 
plied as adverbs: as, 'indifferent honest; excellent 
well ; miserable poor ;' instead of ' Indifferently 
honest ; excellently well ; miserably poor.' c He 
behaved himself conformable to that great ex- 
ample ;' c conformably.' Endeavour to live here- 
after suitable to a person in thy station ;' 'suit- 
ably.' ' I can never think so very mean of him ;' 
' meanly.' ' He describes this river agreeable to 
the common reading :' ' agreeably. 9 ' Agreeable to 
my promise I now write :' ' agreeably.' ' Thy 
exceeding great reward:' When united to an 



everybody's business. 99 

adjective, or adverb not ending in ly, the word 
exceeding has ly added to it : as, ( exceedingly 
dreadful, exceedingly great ;' ' exceedingly well, 
exceedingly more active :' but when it is joined to 
an adverb or adjective, having that termination, 
the ly is omitted : as, ' Some men think exceed- 
ing clearly, and reason exceeding forcibly :' ' She 
appeared, on this occasion, exceeding lovely.' 
c He acted in the business bolder than was ex- 
pected :' ' They behaved the noblest, because they 
were disinterested/ They should have been, 
' more boldly; most nobly.' — The adjective pronoun 
such is often misapplied : as, ' He was such an ex- 
travagant young man, that he spent his whole 
patrimony in a few years :' it should be ' so ex- 
travagant a young man' i I never before saw 
such large trees : ' ' saw trees so large.' "When we 
refer to the species or nature of a thing, the word 
such is properly applied : as, ( Such a temper is 
seldom found : ' but when degree is signified, we 
use the word so : as, i So bad a temper is seldom 
found/ 

" Adverbs are likewise improperly used as ad- 
jectives ; as * The tutor addressed him in terms 
rather warm, but suitably to his offence ; * 
1 suitable. 7 ' They were seen wandering about 
solitarily and distressed ; ' ' solitary. 9 ' He lived 
in a manner agreeably to the dictates of reason 
h 2 



100 everybody's business. 

and religion; ' ' agreeable? c The study of syntax 
should be previously to that of punctuation; 9 
s previous? " 



AGE OF THE VERB. 

He must be a very old fellow ! Very slight is 
the difference between his age and that of the 
noun. We might regard them as husband and 
wife, one being entirely dependent on the other. 
They must have been created in a reversed order 
from mankind ; as the woman, whom we respect, 
as the noun, was brought first into being ; but, as 
she was useless without a helpmate, and alone, 
a verb was provided for her. The noun man, as 
a word, we class feminine ; and she could neither 
eat nor drink ; sit nor walk ; talk nor sleep ; and 
was, as helpless ! as helpless, could be ! without her 
masculine auxiliary and companion, the verb! 
without whose assistance, and energy ; things 
would come to an untimely end ; and chaos and 
darkness reign supreme ! 

We must bear in mind, that, this attribute of 
personality, we attach to the noun and verb, is 
only an adopted notion, for the temporary pur- 
pose of illustration. In all other instances we re- 
present these words by their own impersonal pro- 
nouns. 



everybody's business. 101 

If our memory serve us we must have some 
idea of the offices of the verb, from what has 
already been said concerning it, in these pages. 
At page 5, we were informed, that, in a verb, 
"consists, the principle of action." At page 51 
it was intimated to us that *' verbs are repre- 
sentatives of words which indicate, in their ex- 
pression, that an action is involved/ 5 and at page 
90 to 93 we entered freely into the subject in 
connexion with prepositions. Murray simply, 
but expressively informs us " A verb is a word 
which signifies to be, to do, or to suffer ; as ' I am, 
I rule, I am ruled.' " It expresses an action and 
necessarily implies an agent, which is the actor, 
and an object, which is the subject acted 
upon. 

Most grammarians define the verb in three 
divisions, each representing difference of action, 
which they classify into " active, passive, and 
neuter." The active verb they also term "tran- 
sitive," because the motion is transferred, direct, 
without the intervention of any other sign, to its 
object. The neuter verb, they say, is intransi- 
tive, " because the effect is confined within the 
subject, and does not pass over to any object ; 
as, " I sit, he lives, they sleep ; " but we 
maintain that all verbs are active; their very 
nature consists in energy. They act on their 



102 everybody's business. 

objects. We have a delicate instrument to de- 
note the measurement of time, but from some 
cause, with which we are unacquainted, its action 
has ceased ; w T e resort to a skilful mechanician, 
and he applies a drop of oil to lubricate some of 
the bearings which act as pivots of support to the 
finely constructed wheels. The machine is im- 
mediately all life and motion. We, not knowing 
better, may attribute this action to the deglutin- 
ating fluid, and may appear to discourse very 
learnedly of the wonders of a drop of oil. Pre- 
positions are drops of oil. Philologists seeing, 
whenever a preposition is used a noun follows in 
the objective case, they jump at the conclusion, 
which they inform us of, that " Prepositions 
govern the objective case," and, there is, all the 
while, the quiet, unobtrusive, though powerful 
and energetic verb ; lying, snugly hidden, like a 
mainspring of a watch ; and because there may be 
a train of words, between it and its object, it is 
neglected and forgotten. 

" The wind broke the Tree." 

" David killed Goliath/' 

In these sentences, " broke " and " killed " we 
are informed are transitive verbs, because there is 
immediate transition from the verb to its subject 
the noun ; that is, the breaking fell upon the tree 
and the killing was transmitted to or fell upon 



everybody's business. 103 

Goliath, but, what they are pleased to call neuter 
verbs are equally transitive and active. To be 
sure, the action may revert to or on ourselves, but 
that does not make it less active. " I sit, he 
lives, they sleep," can be made nothing less of 
than active verbs, but if the action is confined to 
ourselves, we seek no extraneous aid, from any 
particle or preposition ; if it proceed beyond our 
immediate self, then we press into service the pre- 
position merely as an assistant : the real — the 
principal operator, being the verb. It may not 
alwaj T s be expressed, and there may be a retinue 
of words in transition to its object, but there it is, 
and if we seek, we may be certain to find it. 

" I sit " upon a stool. 

The sitting is the active instrument, and assisted 
by the preposition upon, causes stool to be in the 
objective case. 

" He lives " upon his wits. 

This is precisely the same ; the living is the 
active principle which assisted by the preposition 
upon, places wits in the objective case. 

" They sleep " in comfortable rooms. 

Sleep is the cause of action on the word rooms ; 
the particle or preposition "in," helping in the 
action. " I sit myself down," " I live there 
myself," " I slept myself, in that room ;" I hurt 
myself." 



134 everybody's business. 

Here we have quoted the very illustrations 
which our old instructors have produced as neuter, 
or intransitive verbs, and shown even as a direct 
agent, these are active or transitive verbs ; but 
we can produce even much stronger proofs to 
convince us of their errors. " Hurt," they call a 
transitive verb, because they perceive the direct 
application from the actor to its object; as, " I 
hurt him ; " and " run/' they describe as a " neuter 
verb. How then can they reconcile their teach- 
ings with this sentence, " He sent some horses to 
Aldridge's, and to prevent their being sold under 
their value, ' he run them up.' " Without pur- 
suing this subject further, we think we have pro- 
duced sufficient evidence to show that all verbs 
are of active signification. 



Verbs are of two numbers, the singular and the 
plural. This means, the words differ to express 
ideas conveying a notion of one to that of more 
objects ; thus we say, " I am," or " he is," when 
speaking of one person : but if we speak of more 
than one, we say, we or they were. Person also 
belongs to the verb, and ;this may be understood 
by referring to what we have said at page 49, 
about pronouns. The verb undergoes change in 
its formation, to agree with the noun or pronoun, 



everybody's business. 105 

as, " I write/' but " John writes," or " he writes." 5 
We see John, or he, is the third person ; and the 
word write becomes zvrites. 

The scheme to represent the idea of number 
and person, is usually set forth thus : — 

Singular. Plural. 

First Person. I write. We write. 

Second Person. You write. You write. 

Third Person. He writes. They write. 

The second person singular, formerly, was 
represented as, " Thou writest ; " this form of 
address is now considered inelegant, and disused, 
though the Society of Friends still adhere to the 
ancient form of expressing themselves. 

" In the plural number of the verb, there is no 
variation of ending to express the different per- 
sons ; and the verb, in the three persons plural, 
is the same as it is in the first person singular. 
Yet this scanty provision of terminations is suffi- 
cient for all the purposes of discourse, and no 
ambiguity arises from it ; the verb being always 
attended, either with the noun expressing the 
subject acting or acted upon, or with the pronoun 
representing it. For this reason, the plural 
termination in en, they loven, they weren, formerly 
in use, w r as laid aside as unnecessary, and has long 
been obsolete." 



106 everybody's business. 

Many, Many hundreds ! aye ! ! thousands of 
tenses verbs must have, according to the notions 
of some of our grammarians ! If every attribute 
of time be indicative of a tense, they, the tenses, 
must be more numerous than " sands on the sea- 
shore!" To speak definitely, present tense or 
time is evanescent, it vanishes from our grasp 
immediately we are possessed of it, and all the 
time we are speaking or writing, we are growing 
old and older, by indivisible particles, indefinable 
to human perception, as time itself, with regard 
to futurity is unlimitable to human comprehen- 
sion ; and yet grammarians have attempted an 
elaborate division with respect to the verb ; but as 
such a division was too much for their expansive 
minds to embrace, they have only bequeathed us 
some dozen tenses. As these appear to have 
been collected with a vast amount of persevering 
and indefatigable industry, the compilers, that 
followed in the footsteps of one another, appeared 
most unwilling to loosen a stone from a fabric 
piled with so much ingenuity, apparent care, and 
assiduity ; and we are furnished with a numerous 
family of moods, and auxiliaries, to keep company 
with the tenses ; whilst the poor adjective they 
have entirely overlooked, and only attributed to 
this neglected word, three different states or 
stages of existence. They inform us, in referring 



107 

to the properties of the verb, that time may be 
more past than past, and more future than future; 
but an object cannot be more large or larger than 
the largest. Some of the tenses or times of verbs 
they describe as — 

Present tense, 

Imperfect, 

Perfect, 

Pluperfect, 

Prseterperfect, 

Praeter imperfect, 

Plusquam perfect, 

Perfect future, 

Aorist, 

First future, 

Second future, and several 
others, if we are curious enough to seek for 
them ; but the only comprehensible division of 
time, for the purpose of expression in the English 
language, is Present, Past, and Future, and 
this arrangement will simplify our examination of 
mood or mode. 



The mode of a verb is, the manner or method 
of conjugation, or variations of the verb, to 
express time or manner of acting in conjunction 
with the tense. 



108 everybody's business. 

The infinitive mode is the radix of the verb, 
from which the present, past, and future time 
radiates ; it is accompanied by the word " To," 
and if this word is not expressed, it is understood. 
Verbs in the infinitive mode are represented thus, 
" To be," " To sleep," " To sit," &c. 



The indicative mode is used for the purpose of 
affirming or denying, without any conditions de- 
pendent on the circumstance ; as " I am," " He 
sleeps," " They sit," &c. 



PARTICIPLES. 



A participle is a form of verb which involves the 
condition of an adjective as well as a verb. As, 
" The horse has fallen." If the horse has fallen, 
it must be a fallen horse. 

(e The participle is distinguished from the ad- 
jective, by the former's expressing the idea of 
time, and the latter' s denoting only a quality. 
The phrases, ' loving to give as well as to re- 
ceive/ ' moving in haste/ ' heated with liquor/ 
contain participles giving the idea of time ; but the 
epithets contained in the expressions, c a loving 
child/ ( a moving spectacle/ ' a heated imagina- 
tion/ mark simply the qualities referred to, 



everybody's business. 109 

without any regard to time ; and may properly be 
called participial adjectives. 

" Participles not only convey the notion of time, 
but they also signify actions, and govern the cases 
of nouns and pronouns, in the same manner as 
verbs do ; and therefore should be comprehended 
in the general name of verbs. That they are 
mere modes of the verb, is manifest, if our de- 
finition of a verb be admitted ; for they signify 
being, doing, or suffering, with the designation of 
time superadded. 

" The following phrases, even when considered 
in themselves, show that participles include the 
idea of time : ' The letter being written, or having 
been written ; ' c Charles being writing, having 
written, or having been writing.' But when 
arranged in an entire sentence, which they must do 
to make a complete sense, they show it still more 
evidently ; as, 6 Charles having written the letter, 
sealed and despatched it/ — The participle does 
indeed associate with different tenses of the verb ; 
as, 6 1 am writing/ ( I was writing/ c I shall be 
writing;* but this forms no just objection to its 
denoting time. If the time of it is often relative 
time, this circumstance, far from disproving, 
supports our position/* 



110 everybody's business. 

auxiliary verbs. 

Why any one word in particular should be pro- 
claimed "Auxiliary" to the prejudice of other 
words, is beyond our comprehension. Murray 
says, " The English verb is mostly composed of 
principal and auxiliary ; and that these several 
parts constitute one verb," and, " The future 
tense is composed of the auxiliary and the prin- 
cipal verb," but then all words are auxiliary to one 
another ; and, in most cases, by depriving any 
sentence — say the one we are now composing — 
of even a single word, we will immediately see 
how one is dependent on another. Then if we 
discard the notion of auxiliaries as being com- 
ponents of modes and tenses it will materially 
assist and simplify our definition of the arrange- 
ments and duties of the verbs, in regard to time 
and modes of action. 

The representation of our scheme of conjuga- 
tion will be 

Infinitive Mode. 
To Have. 



Indicative Mode. 




Present Tense. 




Singular. 


Plural. 


1st Person, I have. 


We have 



everybody's business. Ill 

Singular. Plural. 

2d Person, You have (old style, 

Thou hast), You have. 

3d Person, He, she, or it has. They have. 

i 

Past Tense. 

1st Person, I had. We had. 

2d Person, You had. You had. 

3d Person, He, she, or it had. They had. 

Participles. 
Present, having. Past, had. 

To represent future time, we employ a form of 
expression, that enters to a considerable extent 
into the composition of the English language ; 
this is called "The ellipsis," and it signifies that 
something is omitted or left out, which must be 
supplied to render fulness to our discourse. 

The future tense is simply the verb in the 
infinitive mood, as, To have. 

And when I say " I will have," this is an 
elliptical mode or arrangement of words, and 
nothing more nor less is designed than in the 
phrase, " I will to have/' the word "to" being 
understood. 

Then, " will" must be regarded as a principal, 
and would conjugate as such — as " I will " — 
"will" — is a principal verb, present time, indi- 



112 everybody's business. 

cative mode, and indicating resolve or determina- 
tion, it agrees with the nominative I. " Have," 
is a verb in the infinitive mode future time, the 
sign " to " being understood. 

What grammarians have designated the " Im- 
perative mode," is precisely the same and indica- 
tive of futurity, as "Let me have," which sig- 
nifies " Let, or allow, me, to have," and all the 
various modes may be resolved in the same 
manner. The most important consideration is 
not to use may when we mean will, or can, or 
shall. Attend firstly to the proper significations 
of words, and then use them properly in accord- 
ance with the rules of grammatical construction. 

What our schoolmasters have taught us to con- 
sider as the subjunctive, will furnish us with a 
very clear illustration to convince us that these 
various modes all belong to the infinitive, and 
imply future time. Sometimes we hear ladies 
and gentlemen who know how to speak and write 
correctly say, " If it rain," and at other times, 
"If it rains." And at page 34 of this book, 
occurs a paragraph, in this style, " Now, let us 
see if our reasoning is correct, and if it bear the 
test." 

We are told that " if, though," &c, are signs 
of the subjunctive mood, and when these particles 
are used, their accompaniment is a verb in the 



everybody's business. 113 

plural number, that is, we must say, " If our 
reasoning be correct," or " If it rain." Now this 
evidence is decisive in our favour. " If it rain," 
and "If it rains," are both correct, but the 
meaning of the two terms is very different, one 
from the other. When we say, "If it rain I 
shall not go," " rain " is in the infinitive mode, 
and signifies future time ; but " If it rains I 
shall not go," is the indicative mode, and refers 
to present time. The meaning of the last phrase 
is that you are uncertain about its raining, but if 
it does rain, or " it rains," grant or give this, " I 
shall not go." So in the words, "Let us see if 
our reasoning is correct." "Is," is in the indica- 
tive mode and present time. We know it is 
correct, but w r e are going to subject it to trial, to 
see if it bear the test. 

What is called the " passive verb," or the 
"passive form of the active verb," is evidently 
nothing but a participle following the principal 
verb. " To be loved," or " I am loved," &c, are 
terms clearly significant of loved persons. 

When the past time of verbs, and also the 
participles end in " ed " they are called " regular 
verbs," and this " ed " is according to the termi- 
nation of a large number of verbs, as, to love, past 
time, loved, or " He loved her." 
To walk — walked. 



iii 



EVERYBODY S BUSINESS. 



When the past time of verbs are not formed 
by the addition of " ed," they are described 
"irregular," as " to be/ past time, "was/' or 
"I was." 



Conjugation of the Irregular Verb 
To be. 



Infinitive Mode. 




To be. 




Indicative Mode. 




Present Tense. 




Singular. 


Plural. 


1st Person, 1 am. 


We are. 


2d Person, You are. 


You are. 


3d Person, He, she, or it is. 


They are. 


Pad Tense. 




Singular. 


Plural. 


1st Person, I was. 


We were. 


2d Person, You were. 


You were. 


3d* Person, They were. 


They were, 



Participles. 



Present, Being. 



Past, Been. 



Conjugation of the Regular Verb 
To Lore. 



EVERYBODY S BUSINESS. 



115 



Infinitive Mode. 
To Love. 

Indicative Mode. 

Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1st Person, I love. We love. 

2d Person, You love. You love. 

3d Person, He, she, or it loves. They love. 

Past Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1st Person, 1 loved. We loved. 

2d Person, You loved. You loved. 

3d Person, They loved. They loved. 

Participles. 
Present, Loving. Past, Loved. 



The first word in these conjugations, it will be 
observed, are pronouns, and in the nominative 
case; thence the theorem, " A verb must agree 
with its nominative case," and it would be incor- 
rect to say, " They is," " You has," or " You 
loves," because such combinations of words do 
not agree with the rules. They do not accord 
with the conjugations. 

There is no need for a multiplicity of examples, 
accompanied by a long list of irregular verbs. 



116 everybody's business. 

To be thoroughly imbued with principles is of 
infinite more service for arriving at correct con- 
clusions, than an array of terms, useless, unless 
borne in the memory. 



" He could not read nor write, 
He could not spell his name, 
Towards being a clerk, Sir Eppo, his (f) mark, 
Was as near as he ever came. 
He had felt no vexation 
From multiplication ; 
Never puzzled was he 
By the rule of three ; 
The practice he'd had 
Did not drive him mad, 
Because it all lay 
Quite a different way." 

Christmas is here, and now we must have some 
fun. 

There is still enough jollity in Old England for 
enjoyments at those anniversary festivities, which 
all the world hails w r ith glad hearts. We must 
have our dance and our song. " Dos't think, 
because thou art virtuous there shall be no more 
cakes and ale." Aye, and we will be joyful and 
loud with merriment, before the Yule log crack- 
ling and blazing whilst we sit, gladsome before 
the glowing hearth. We will have our glass of 



everybody's business. 117 

good cheer, and be jovial — warm within, and 
warm without. And we will tell many a merry 
tale, and see what entertainment our old friend 
Dickens has provided for us — for, of course, he 
makes his appearance among us ; and Christmas 
and the New Year is certain to be ushered in wdth 
a new tale well told. We can't all be beautiful, 
that's certain ; but if we choose we may know 
"Everybody's Business," and to store the mind 
with knowledge, is more than compensation, for 
bodily defects ; it renders us satisfied with our- 
selves and agreeable to others, and is infinitely 
more estimable and permanent, than personal 
charms. Referring to Christmas and the New 
Year reminds us of the good things that will be 
said, as well as many unpardonable. We have 
heard young ladies, with hair suggestive of boiled 
beef — complexion like a slice of Cheshire cheese — 
an aspiring nose — and a mouth certainly not on 
lease, it being held from y' ear to ear, say, " Do 
you think I get pretty." 

Nothing evinces so much bad taste as such in- 
judicious^^ de mots, which is direct evidence of 
deficiency in grammatical education, but very 
often the last member of a sentence imparts a 
totally different feature to the whole subject. 

lt The mice have been to my closet, and eaten 
a portion of medicine, with some philosophy." 



118 everybody's business. 

This paragraph appears nonsense, because the 
sentence is incomplete, but the remaining clause 
makes the whole comprehensible, as " The mice 
have been to my closet, and eaten a portion of 
medicine, with some philosophy, and spoilt my 
Encyclopedia Britannica." 

" Do you think I get pretty ? " 

It certainly is very discordant for " I get " to 
represent " Highgate," but we have heard this 
arranged in such a manner as to impress us with 
a very favourable opinion of the proposer of the 
question. It was thus, "Do you think I get 
pretty. Excuse the way I put the question. Of 
course you perceive there is a defect about the 
e High ; ' this arises from a cold from the high 
winds ; and whenever I go to Hollo way I think 
about it, ' I get ill.' " But this letter " H " has 
always been a meddling, troublesome fellow, and 
Dr. Lushington recently referred to some person 
turning "H" into" L." 



A pronoun should always relate to and agree 
with its nearest noun. 

" I'll throw an egg against a wall and it shall 
neither break nor fall," or, 

" Houses upon houses, churches upon churches, 
I'll take of my shoes and jump over them." 



everybody's business. 119 

In the first proposition "it" is a pronoun, 
singular number, and can only relate properly to 
its nearest noun, wall, with which it agrees. 

In the second proposition them is a plural pro- 
noun, relating to its nearest noun, and agreeing 
with, and taking the place of shoes. 

The wall shall not break nor fall : and Pll 
jump over the shoes. 

We often hear such phrases as, " He is gone 
to Hastings for the benefit of the air." As if 
the air derived any benefit by his going to 
Hastings, also, 

" There are some roses that donH smell." 

" A chicken eats nice." 

We never knew that any roses did smell. Nor 
that a chicken eats any nicer than a mouse. We 
have actually been asked " If we ever saw 
oysters feeding time," meaning that people went 
at luncheon time to Sweeting's, the fishmonger, 
but this is not so bad as 

" When I saw Maria fall overboard, why did 
it remind me of indulgences at a confectioner's ? " 

" Because Ices and Ice creams." 

Now these can never be passable puns ; accord- 
ing to our notions of grammatical propriety they 
are execrable. We know that the verb does not 
agree with the nominative pronoun. We cannot 
say, " I sees and I screams." 



120 everybody's business. 



Marks and Remarks used in Writing. 

A comma is the smallest division of time : it 
is noted thus, ",?. A semicolon is a pause, 
longer in the next degree, formed thus, " ; ". A 
colon is marked in this manner, " : ". It is some- 
times at the completion of a sentence, when the 
sense is carried on in the next sentence ; as " A 
comma is the smallest division of time. It is marked 
thus (,)." A period is the finish of a sentence, 
thus " . " 3 and a capital letter must follow. This 
"!" is a mark of exclamation; and this, "?" 
interrogation. They are among the most expres- 
sive signs in writing — the last especially signi- 
ficant — as, " She certainly is very beautiful V 9 or, 
te Two gentlemen ? were fined forty shillings each 
— at Marlborough Police Court — for creating a 
disturbance. In their pockets were found several 
knockers and bell-handles." In these descriptive 
phrases, the mark of interrogation conveys an im- 
pression that the beauty of the lady is doubtful, 
and questions the title of those who were fined to 
the appellation of gentlemen. 

The dash " — " conveys an idea that something 
is inferred beyond what is expressed ; sometimes, 
when the sense would be complete if part of the 
sentence were omitted, the dash is used. As 



everybody's business. 121 

" Two gentlemen were fined — forty shillings each 
— at Marlborough Police Court." It is a matter 
of taste to use commas after the words " fined w 
and " each," or the dash. Some persons use the 
parenthesis " ( ) " in such cases, but it is very 
seldom used by w r riters of taste. 

" There are other characters, which are fre- 
quently made use of in composition, and which 
may be explained in this place, viz. : — 

" An apostrophe, marked thus ', is used to 
abbreviate or shorten a word ; as, His for it is ; 
tho } for though ; e'en for even ; judg'd for judged. 
It's chief use is to show the genitive case 
of nouns; as, 'A man's property, a woman's 
ornament.' 

" A caret, marked A , is placed where some 
word happens to be left out in writing, which is 
inserted over the line. This mark is also called 
a circumflex, when placed over a particular vowel, 
to denote a long syllable ; as, ' Euphrates.' 

" A hyphen, marked thus -, is employed in 
connecting compound words ; as, ? Lap-dog, tea- 
pot, pre-existence, self-love, to-morrow, mother- 
in-law.' 

" It is also used when a word is divided, and 
the former part is written or printed at the end 
of one line, and the latter part at the beginning 
of another. In this case it is placed at the end 

K 



122 everybody's business. 

of the first line, not at the beginning of the 
second." 

We have now finished our historical account of 
all that is necessary to be known of the words in 
the English language, to enable us to arrange 
them — to speak and write correctly. We com- 
menced in the capacity of tutor, but with the 
design of advancing our pupils in knowledge 
suificient to be capable of critically examining all 
the points we have urged. 

There are many things herein advanced in 
opposition to generally received notions of gram- 
matical science, which have been honoured by the 
sanction of time, and confirmed by authority of 
the highest order. We might have extended 
our views, and pursued the subject much further, 
but this would have interfered with our object 
in a commercial point of view. The price would 
have been enhanced, which would have impeded 
progress, by decreasing circulation. 



C. A. Macintosh, Printer, Great New-street, London. 



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